ANCIENT SOURCES:A BEGINNING

The Web teems with the richness of the Ancient World.  So many wonderfully conceived sites representing dedication, scholarship, diversity, determination and exceptional creativity.  At least 400 lists exist for the ancient area. But, what good, I wondered, is yet another list. So this Ancient Arena is explained each step of the way. By looking through the material in the Chapters on this Page, one can attain a general overview of the place, the time, the subject matter, the humans. Then the searcher can move to the areas of interest or even fascination - and begin the in-depth "clicking" and traveling and thinking.  My pledge to the voyager is simple: I place here only those sites and destinations in which I have spent time and thought. I have searched through each one with care.

 We begin with the Big Five Destinations:

The Land Almost Before Time

The Mystery that was Egypt

The Glory that was Greece

The Power that was Rome

The Complexity that was the Other Ancients

Everyone has his/her own starting point. So, start anywhere.

THE GLORY THAT WAS GREECE

The splendor, the sacrifices, the superstars, the sound and fury, the symbolism - and the men primarily and their slaves who made this possible. Here in this mere spot of land, smaller than some of the states from which we come - extended periodically by stunning conquest, lies a central core to the shaping and future of the Western human and those earthlings who are impacted by these traditions and values.

SPECIAL PLACES:  FAVORITE 12

The Greek World of MARY RENAULT:  A SPECIAL TREAT

Site loaded with great Greek stuff. Start with Chronology of Greek History.  All her books are here with synopsis, list and explanation of characters, historical background: Fire From Heaven, Funeral Games, The Bull From the Sea, The King Must Die, The Last of the Wine, The Mask of Apollo, The Persian Boy, The Praise Singer

Aesop's Fables:  SPECIAL FABLES

Wonderful site. Audio narrations, images, fables, Search.  Fairy Tales by Hans Christian Andersen and Grimms Fairy Tales with much more mythology and stories. . "Suddenly we are faced with such morals as Clumsy Jesting Is No Joke, A Man Is Known By The Company He Keeps, and Union Gives Strength. It's the place to go when you want sharp insights, gentle humor, and lessons in life. . . Come in and enjoy the ageless wisdom of Aesop and his Fables." Join in and add a moral.   And sit back and listen to Enya's music.  

Alexander the Great:  From Here to Eternity:  I really like this SPECIAL place!

Ancient Olympics: A SPECIAL PLACE

Almost endless site about ancient olympics. Tour of Ancient Olympia, the contests, olympic spirit, ancient sports.

Archimedes Home Page - SPECIAL "STUFF"

Archimedean miscellanea, more interesting because of information on subjects including siege of Syracuse, the Archimedes' screw, solids, spheres, coins.

Dr. J's Illustrated Guide to Greece:  SPECIAL ACADEMIC/DESIGN PRODUCTION

"Site designed to open up the world of ancient Greece to students of all levels. . . . Greece is unique among classical cultures because the curious intersection of myth, literary genius, history and reality is reflected in the material culture left behind. Today you can stand in the King's megaron at Mycenae and imagine you hear Clytemnestra's screams (Aeschylus' Oresteia); you can see an excavated bathtub at Pylos, in the very palace that Homer told us Telemachos was bathed! You can determine the very spot from where King Aegeus threw himself into the sea." Illustrated lectures including The Mythic Hero, Greek Theater, Drama, Parthenon Marbles, Road to the Recovery of Ancient Buildings.  And Illustrated Aeschylus' Oresteia, Sophocles' Antigone, Oedipus and the Sphinx, Plato's Apology and Crito, Pericles' Funeral Oration.

Great Homepage of Alexander, or Something Like That: A SPECIAL PLACE

Outstanding site. As complete as it can get. Produced by 3 special students - under the supervision of the Williams Classics Department. Alexander's First 20 Years - youth, Macedonian army, Greek conquests. On the Orient Express - Persia, Egypt, Delhi, long road home, good things end. Whom did he love?

Persian Wars - SPECIAL TOUR

"To learn about how Athens took center stage in the Greek fight against the invading Persians, and why Athens developed such a superiority complex, which led to the founding of the Athenian Empire that ruled the Aegean in the Golden Age of Greece, start here."

Last Days of Socrates: A SPECIAL SITE - His "voices."

THE ANCIENT PLACES

For Macedonia, see Alexander

Delos - The Intensive Perseus Page
Illustrated Sacred Isle of Delos

Knossos - The Palace of King Midas

Use as a base for Minoan Civilization tour.

The Parthenon:  Core Page

Setting, Architecture Orders, Metopes Pediments, Ancient Authors.  "When work began on the Parthenon in 447 BC, the Athenian Empire was at the height of its power. Work on the temple continued until 432; the Parthenon, then, represents the tangible and visible efflorescence of Athenian imperial power, unencumbered by the depradations of the Peloponnesian War. Likewise, it symbolizes the power and influence of the Athenian politician, Perikles, who championed its construction."

Parthenon Marbles

Lord Elgin, Ambassador to Constantinople stole the Parthenon Marbles 150 years ago. They reside in the British Museum and the British Government will not give them back. The marbles are the famous and original sculpture supervised by Pheidias and commissioned by Pericles. While stealing them, the Elgin folks broke them, sawed them in half. In Britain, treated shabbily, they deteriorated. Very nasty business. Site dedicated to Greek actress and Parliament member who, though now dead, speaks on audio.  As one other site described:  "The request for the restitution of the Parthenon Marbles is not made by the Greek government in the name of the Greek nation or of Greek history. It is made in the name of the cultural heritage of the world and with the voice of the mutilated monument itself, that cries out for its marbles to be returned." Evangelos Venizelos, Greek Minister of Culture. " Far away from their native land, the Parthenon Marbles have been situated at the British Museum.  There are continuous negotiations between the Greek government, asking for their return, and the British government who, together with the Trustees of the British Museum, have refused to do this."  What are the Parthenon Marbles, Pictures, History?

Getting to know Rhodes - The Third Largest Greek Island

What I like about Rhodes is the mixture of historical time frames, the long walk around the long wall, and the beautiful Mediterranean in the distance.

Santorini and Its Volcano

Skip momentarily the volcano and the Atlantis myths.  What is special to me is one of the purest, most scientific, non-fantasy excavation sites in the Mediterranean.  Yes, the views are lovely. Yes, tourists flock here.  For history and wondering, the excavation is essential. Santorini is an volcanic island group belonging to the Cyclads. One of the active volcanoes in this area (last eruption of Methana 250 BC, Santorini 1950, Nisiros 1888). "It seems probable that this early eruption gave birth to the myth of Atlantis, which Plato describes as a rich and proud land that was sunk into the sea when it attracted the anger of Poseidon and Zeus. Major support for this hypothesis given by sensational archeological discoveries as they found underneath the layer of pumice,  a rich Cycladic civilization of the late bronze age (pottery, houses with colorful and lively paintings and a highly developed town) predating the eruption that destroyed the island."

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THE "OTHER" MAIN GREEK POLIS!
Ancient Sparta:  Take a trip and combine present and past.

Everything Spartan, Lakonian and Messenian

Politics and Laws, Religion, Women, poetry, art, clothing, entertainment, cuisine. Sanctuary), Menelaion, the archaeological museum.

Sparta - Ancient Greece

"It's hard for textbooks to say anything nice about the Spartans. Take up any world history textbook and read; you'll find that the Spartans were "an armed camp," "brutal," "culturally stagnant," "economically stagnant," "politically stagnant," and other fun things. The reality, of course, lies somewhere behind the value judgements. Greek history does, after all, come down to us through the eyes of the other major city-state in Greece, Athens, a bitter enemy and rival of Sparta. The two represent diametrically opposed concepts of the Greek polis and its relations with other city-states; and concepts of the individual's relationship to the state. Despite all the rhetoric in Athens and in the European historical tradition, keep in mind that the Spartans believed they lived in the best of all Greek worlds, and many of their Greek neighbors agreed with them. The rivalry, then, between Sparta and Athens, which would erupt into a disastrous war for Athens, was also an ideological and cultural rivalry. The single, overwhelming fact of Spartan history is the Messenean War."

Ancient Sparta:  Materials for the Study of Spartan History

"A story about a Spartan boy who, in order to conceal a fox which he had stolen, hid it beneath his cloak and allowed the fox to gnaw him rather than let the theft be revealed. He died of the wounds. If he had been discovered, the disgrace would not have been in the stealing, but in allowing it to be detected. The boy's acting illustrates the main purpose of the Spartan educational system - to produce men capable of showing such bravery as soldiers."

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Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

Great Pyramid of Giza, Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, Colossus of Rhodes, Lighthouse of Alexandria.

THE EARLY AND ISLAND CIVILIZATIONS

Bureaucrats and Barbarians

Minoans, Mycenaeans, and the Greek Dark Ages from Richard Hooker, WSU.

Minoan Civilization

Start here and do not stop.  History, images, pictures.  It is all here. Pre-palace period 2600-1900 BC. First palace period 1900-1700 BC. Second palace period 1700-1380 BC. Post-palace period 1380-1100 BC. Sub-Minoan period 1100-1000 BC. Pictures from Knossos and Minoan Crete (album of click able thumbnails).  Sir Arthur Evans.  

Mycenaean Palace from Archimedia

Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean

Outstanding and critical site including early Minoan period, middle Minoan Crete, first palaces, tombs, graves, collapse. Dartmouth College project.

THE CITIES

The Agora of Athens

Another of Andrew Wilson's remarkable sites. Click on the map and walk around the various monuments.

Ancient City of Athens

"Photographic archive of the archaeological and architectural remains of ancient Athens."

Piraeus, the Harbor of Athens - Site Kaput (but the summary left in for Info)

"Piraeus is located 9 km southwest of Athens, overlooking the Martoum Sea, which leads to the Saronic Gulf.  A penisula surrounded by the sea, with three natural harbors. An insignificant settlement through the Minoan Age, but steadily grew in size and importance after 800 BC. Recognizing its strategic value to Athens, the penisula was first fortifed in late 6th century BC by Hippias. Themistocles, Archon at Athens, undertook a major expansion of Piraeus in 493 BC. His goal was to build a naval empire, and he needed the harbors that the Piraeus naturally afforded. Themistocles built over 200 Greek warships (triremes), and later cunningly manuevered his forces to defeat the Persian king Xerxes in the battle of Salamis (479 BC). Piraeus became the naval headquarters of Attica, featuring fortifications, ship sheds, dry docks, storage buildings, and arsenals."

ALEXANDRIA on the Web

  In ancient Egypt, the city and Library of Alexandria was the meeting place where learning, teaching and culture flourished.

THE HISTORY AND CIVILIZATION

Ancient World Cultures: Ancient Greece

Snapshot essay and sites from the AWC pages. Search the whole area for chronology, quizzes.

History of Greece

Covers all stages and areas. Brief but helpful survey.

The Oedipus Page

The Thebian Story and its interpretation.  Test your knowledge on this intriguing site.

Study of Ancient Greece

Good site on Athenian Chauvinism and the Idea of Democracy. Also contains

valuable documentation covering the "Age of Expansion," and "Classical Greece."

Historical Overview of Archaic and Classical Greece

Thomas Martin's exhaustive historical overview. Covers the range of Greek history. For capsules on most aspects, read through in a weekend. Skillful, organized, flowing, comprehensive. Better than reading a textbook.

THE ARTS - AND ARCHITECTURE

Greek Drama

Introduction to Greek theater. Link to Tufts University website on the development of Greek tragedy; move to ancient Greek music. Read "Medea" and "Antigone" and "Lysistrata."

Structure of the Greek Theatre

Greek Theater - General Design

The Origin of Theatre - How it all began, playwrights, theater format, acting.

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The Classics Pages:  Comprehensive, Extensive, Alluring

Classics Pages: Euripides' Orestes - Andrew Wilson Translation

Euripides Helen - Another Andrew Wilson page and translation.

The Euripides Home Page

Biography, background, texts of the plays.

Classical Love Poetry

Study Guide from Wash. State Univ., with excellent summaries and links.

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History of Greek Architecture

Brief snapshots of important Greek "places" including Delphi, Argos, Parthenon, Korinthos, Temple of Apollo.

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Greek Dancing Through the Centuries

Leaping, shuffling, chains, shoes, handkerchiefs, dragging. Do you know the connection and significance of these terms to Greek Dance? To Greek history?  "Nowhere else the Greeks'distinctive character has been more completely expressed than in the choral dance .Almost hear the music!  Feel the beat! Envision the dancers as you explore this engaging, descriptive site that covers Greek dance from its roots to the present."

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"How does a block of marble become a work of art? Find out here! Learn about materials and methods used by Greek artists during the period 480-323 BC. Discover the cultural intentions behind classical Greek sculpture. When you think you know it all, try the quiz, and before you leave, don't miss a walk around the virtual Parthenon."

THE LIFE AND THE CULTURE

Ancient Greek World

"The Land of Ancient Greece." Major site touching on Land and Archaeological Time, Daily Life, Economy, Religion, Death. Quickly scanning all time periods, gives vignettes and exhibits of the Greek house, drinking parties, women's dress and toilet articles, men's life, warfare, coinage, trade, manufacturing, Greek view of life and death.

Trade and Barter in Ancient Greece - Scholarly article in many phases of Ancient Greece.

Perseus:  The Development of Greek Law

Crime and Punishment at Olympia and Delphi

Outstanding information and analysis.  Go on to Crimes of Theft, Rule Violations, Sacrileges, Political Crimes, Unusual Crimes, Punishments, Extent of Corruption.

The Cultural Context of Deformity in the Ancient Greek World

"Let There Be a Law That No Deformed Child Shall Be Reared." That the Greeks, especially the Spartans and Athenians, regularly disposed of new-borns with visible physical anomalies is commonly accepted. Of the fair amount of literature on infanticide in ancient Greece, there has been little in-depth analysis of this custom.

Daily Life in Ancient Greece

How would you have behaved if you had lived in ancient Sparta? (Lie, cheat, steal, because that is the Sparta way!) Or in ancient Athens? Or in Corinth, Argos, or Megara? Meet the Greeks! They were a riot! And choose your city-state!"  Houses, families, toys, pets, clothing, hair styles, et. al. MEET YOUR FELLOW OLYMPIANS!

The Greek Diet:  Meat as Luxury

History of Greek Olive Oil

"Nowhere is the heritage of the olive more entwined with both mythology and the daily lives of a population than in Greece—where full-scale cultivation was first undertaken 4,000 years ago."  And another great article, "An Important Ingredient in Greek Culture."

Pedagogy and Homosexuality in Ancient Greece: Did Pederasty Corrupt the Youth?

" Ancient Greeks acknowledged homosexuality as an important tool in boys' education. They institutionalized and regulated its practices within their law codes. True, opinions about it varied, but few aspects of any culture have ever stood without debate, both popular and forensic. Their homosexuality, almost universally intergenerational, resembled what modern societies call pederasty rather than homosexuality between adults. It was an anomalous experiment in the education of youth."

Did Rape Exist in Classical Athens?

WOMEN AND CHILDREN

Daily Life of Women in Ancient Greece

Covers the waterfront!  Daily Life, food, babies, children, women in the home and men outside, games, daily rituals.

The Role of Women in Ancient Greece

Even thought it says "Rome," it is about Greece!  Click to Greece.

Women and the Trojan War - and Trojan War Women.

The Role of Women in Ancient Greek Art

"Investigation of the role of women in the Art of ancient Greece is complex because artists were affected both by the art of the past and the women that they saw around them every day. There is one certainty and that is that the influence of the various roles evident produced some of the greatest art ever. Investigates the various influences that women had and provide information to help understanding of this important area of art."

The Representation of Prostitutes Versus Respectable Women on Ancient Greek Vases

Great article by Jill Kleinman.  "In ancient Greek civilization. . . there were generally three status levels a woman could occupy in ancient Athens: a citizen, a freedwoman, and a slave. Citizen women acquired their citizenship at birth by being born from parents who were also citizens. These women were generally labeled as respectable, and had to follow specific codes regarding public and private behavior. Freedwomen consisted of either former slaves who had acquired their freedom or foreigners from other countries who had settled in Greece to live. Slaves were mostly foreigners who had been captured from conquered areas or were children of slaves. Prostitutes in Athens consisted of both freedwomen and slaves, and most were foreigners. However, even in the profession of prostitution, there was a distinct categorization among these women; there were high and low class prostitutes."

Greek Weddings

"We can place the wedding ceremony in its context of Greek life and ritual. A Greek girl married young, around 14. Marriage at such a young age was presumed to guarantee virginity, which, until marriage, was thought to be threatened by her lustful youth."

Marriage and Divorce

"The betrothal was an important public event. . . The guardian on this occasion repeated the phrase that expressed the primary aim of marriage: "I give you this woman for the plowing [procreation] of legitimate children." Other interesting "policies."

Marriage and Funeral Rites in Classical Athens

In ancient Mediterranean world there was hardly room for choice: not only was marriage destiny, but so was death.

The Women of Greece

"Sarah Pomeroy says of classical Athens, 'Rarely has there been a wider discrepancy between the cultural rewards a society had to offer and women's participation in that culture.'  And while the status of women and the opportunities open to them did vary by time period and state, the women of ancient Greece lived in a culture that restricted them legally, economically, and socially. Despite such limitations, these women did play large roles in many aspects of their culture, particularly in religion, and the great panhellenic sanctuaries Olympia and Delphi bear witness to the influence of these women on their world, and thus upon ours."  Her conclusion:  " In spite of some limited gestures towards women in areas such as athletics and religion, ancient Greece remained very much a male-dominated society. Nonetheless, some women did take advantage of those opportunities  - as athletes or as priestesses or in other ways, as they did at Delphi. Apollo's sanctuary, with its Pythian priestess and its female Games and its rich mythology, bears witness to a strong/unforgotten female presence in Greek history and culture."

Women in a Man's World: Vignettes on both Greece and Rome.

Women's Lives at Home and Work - Important Information and Excellent Sources

Xenophon on the Spartans

"Lycurgus ...,considering that the PRODUCTION OF CHILDREN WAS THE NOBLEST DUTY OF THE FREE, he enacted ...that the female should practice bodily exercise no less than the male sex...He took from the men the liberty of marrying when each of them pleased, and appointed that they should contract marriages only when they were in full bodily vigor, deeming this injunction also conducive to producing excellent offspring... An old man should introduce to his wife whatever man in the prime of life he admired for his bodily and mental qualities, so that she might have children by him."

THE MEDICINE AND SCIENCE

Ancient Locker Rooms

In his treatise on the Athenian Republic written around 450 B.C., Xenophon writes that there are three essential parts to a competition and training center, "besides the actual runs and wrestling-rings, some place where those who use them may undress and oil themselves before exercise, and may wash themselves afterwards."

Astronomy of the Greeks

Glance at Greek Geography

"Geography has always had a great influence on Greece and its inhabitants. It is largely responsible for numerous continuities in its extensive history. While the mountains that split the Greek lands have contributed to localism,   they have been a major barrier to unity as a nation. The struggle of communication by land and the significant presence of the sea have made mariners out of Greeks for numerous generations. The natural resources ensure a steady flow of abundance and guarantee sustenance if governed wisely."

Greek and Roman Surgical Instruments - The Pictures:  Ugh!

History of Plumbing in Greece

"A Traveler's Treat: More ritual than hygienic, it was considered good manners for a host to offer his guest the services of his bathroom after a dusty and arduous journey. Ah, the joys of being treated by a winsome slave girl as she scraped his skin of perspiration and dirt with an iron utensil! Ah, the shock when she completed her work with a good dousing of cold water from an urn."

Mathematics - Ancient Science and Its Modern Fates

From the Vatican Museum.  "For over a thousand years--from the fifth century B.C. on, Greek mathematicians maintained a splendid tradition of work in exact sciences: mathematics, astronomy, and related fields." Classical Roots of Scientific Revolution, Ptolemy's Geography - Science of the Earth's Surface (Ptolemy who gave Greek astronomy its final form in the second century A.D., did the same--and more--for geography and cartography). Greek Astronomy - The Revival of an Ancient Science (One of the most powerful creations of Greek science was the mathematical astronomy created by Hipparchus in the second century B.C. and given final form by Ptolemy in the second century A.D.). Fine science site with excellent illustrations.  Makes a difficult subject "simple."

Medicine in Ancient Greece

Helpful on an obscure subject. "The Greeks are popularly considered the forefathers of modern medicine. What is not popularly known is that the Greeks were greatly influenced by the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians. Many of their theories and practices were adopted by Hippocrates and are still in use today. Hippocrates, commonly considered the first physician, ushered in the new era of Rational Medicine. He was the first to discount the supernatural as a cause for disease. Instead, he attributed disease to natural causes, mainly the four humors. "  Gateway to other sites on Medicine.

The Plague in Athens During the Peloponnesian War - From Thucydides

THE GODS AND THE MYTHS

Mythweb

Site devoted to the heroes, gods and monsters of Greek mythology.

Greek Mythology:  From the Iliad to the Fall of the Last Tyrant

Origins of Greek Mythology, Fun Fact Quiz 3.0, The Immortals... an alphabetical list.

Greek Myths - Oedipus

Everything you always wanted to know about Oedipus. From the Classics Page.

Hercules:  Greece's Greatest Hero

Stories, life, his women, his travels - from the Perseus Project at Tufts University.

The Muses from Greek Mythology

Meet "The Muses, the Greek goddesses who preside over the arts and sciences and inspire those who excel at these pursuits."

Mythmedia - Mythology in Western Art

Superior selections, thorough site. The great gods, history, pictures.

Greek Mythology - Detail on a huge array of Gods!

Women in Greek Myths

Major and minor Goddesses, monsters and Monsteresses and Monstrocities, The Fates & The Graiae, enforcers, nymphs, human women in Greek myths.

THE CULTS, MYSTERIES, SACRIFICES, RELIGION

Sacrifices in Ancient Greece

"Sacrifices in ancient Greece were a major part of every Greek's religion. The Greeks had many reasons for doing sacrifices, but the main reason was to please the gods."

Greek Rituals and Sacrifices

Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece

Ecole Initiative: The Eleusinian Mysteries

The Eleusinian Mysteries, "held annually in honor of Demeter and Persephone, were the most sacred and revered of all the ritual celebrations of ancient Greece." Continued for almost two thousand years. "Large crowds of worshippers from all over Greece and later from throughout the Roman empire would gather to make the holy pilgrimage between the two cities and participate in the secret rites, generally regarded as the high point of Greek religion. As Christianity began to spread, the Mysteries were condemned by the early Church fathers; yet they continued and exercised considerable influence on the formation of early Christian teachings and practices." Comprehensive treatment by U. Evansville professor.

Has the Mystery of the Eleusinian Mysteries Been Solved?

SLAVERY

Vital subject.  Internet is somewhat lacking.  The following Web sites are helpful.

Documents on Greek Slavery, c. 750 - 330 BCE

Ancient Greek Slavery and its Relationship to Democracy

Critical article. "Slavery underpinned the entire fabric of the society of Ancient Greece. Family, business, and, most importantly, political life all relied heavily on a class of people who carried out menial and degrading tasks for their masters. Slavery made several direct and fundamental contributions to the practical application of democracy. However, it was not only Greek slavery that led to the development of democracy in Athens and elsewhere; a complex combination of factors produced the institution we so widely regard as the foundation of our own political system.. . .The exclusion of a large proportion of the population, namely slaves, foreigners and women, from the citizenship of a Greek state allowed their particular form of direct democracy to take place much more readily. The numbers of the politically active population were reduced so much so that most of the citizens could meet in one place to discuss matters of importance to the state. Slavery also allowed working citizens the luxury of taking a day off to attend the assemblies, which were held on a regular basis."

Greek Slavery Makes Democracy Possible

" For example, the urbanisation of Greece, philosophical developments and an interest in politics by the population at large all contributed to the rise of democracy in Athens. On the other hand, slavery also underpinned these factors, so perhaps it is only a slight exaggeration to say that only Greek slavery made Greek democracy possible."

Ancient Greek and Roman Slavery

" Ancient Greece practiced slavery and Athens was considered in many ways to be the model for other city-states. During the 5th century B.C., Athens contained approximately 100,000 slaves and this constituted from 1/3 to 1/2+ of the total population. Most Athenians, except for the very poor, owned at least one slave. These proportions were common throughout ancient Greece except in Sparta. Sparta enslaved the entire population of the city-state of Messenia. These slaves were called "helots" and they worked the land of the Spartans, performing all of the agricultural duties. The helots outnumbered the Spartans possibly by as much as ten times. Thus, the outnumbered Spartans had to work hard to suppress the helots from revolting."

Slavery from the Perseus Site

In Dark Age Greece - "The only evidence for slavery in the Dark Age--the language of the poetry of Homer and Hesiod--reveals complex relationships of dependency among free and unfree people."  Click on each of the buttons for detailed information. "The strongest contrast citizenship produced, therefore, was that between free and unfree. In this way, the development of a clear idea of personal freedom in the formation of the city-state as a new political form may ironically have encouraged the complementary development of chattel slavery in the Archaic Age." Sources of Slaves.   "Chattel slavery became widespread in Greece only after about 600 B.C. Eventually, slaves became cheap enough that people of moderate means could afford one or two. Nevertheless, even wealthy Greek landowners never acquired gangs of hundreds of slaves like those who maintained Rome's water system under the Roman Empire or worked large plantations in the southern United States before the American Civil War. Maintaining a large number of slaves year around in ancient Greece would have been uneconomical because the cultivation of the crops grown there called for short periods of intense labor punctuated by long stretches of inactivity, during which slaves would have to be fed even while they had no work to do. By the fifth century B.C., however, the number of slaves in some city-states had grown to as much as one-third of the total population."    Occupations of Slaves   The Lives of Slaves  

Greek Slavery - A Summary

Slavery in Ancient Greece

"There may have been as many, if not more, slaves than free people in ancient Greece. It is difficult for historians to determine exactly how many slaves there were during these times, because many did not appear any different from the poorer Greek citizens."

THE OLYMPIC IDEAL AND SPORTS

Ancient Olympics

Almost endless site about the ancient olympics. A tour of Ancient Olympia, the contest of the games and the olympic spirit, ancient sports, athlete's stories.  "Did You Know: During the ancient Olympic Games, which started in 776 BCE, the men competed naked? Can you imagine Charles Barkley playing basketball naked? Did You Know: boxers wore only ten foot long straps of leather around their hands for protection? No ear guards, no padded gloves, no protective cups! How would Reid have faired without his headgear?

Frequently Asked Questions about the Ancient Olympic Games

1. Where did the Olympic games come from?   2. Why were they held at Olympia?   3. Were there other contests like the Olympics?   4. Who could compete in the Olympics?   5. Were women allowed ? 6. How were the athletes trained? 7. What prizes did Olympic victors get? 8. Who were the Olympic judges? 9. What was the penalty for cheating? 10. Where did the marathon come from?

Crime and Punishment at Olympia and Delphi

Fascinating information about "misconduct" at the original Olympic Games.  Crimes of Theft. Rule Violations. Sacrileges. Political Crimes. Unusual Crimes. Punishments. Extent of Corruption.

Olympic Games in the Ancient Hellenic World

Virtual museum of the ancient games held every four years for over 1100 years from 776BC to 393AD. "Thousands of people ceased all warfare and flocked to a small sanctuary in northwestern Greece for five days to witness the Olympic Games....Competitors from all over the Greek world competed." Pictures of the sites, and a slide show story of a competitor.

Olympics Through Time

Well-designed journey from pre-history to classical to revival and on.

Greek Games

"The Greeks took games of all kinds very seriously, but especially physical athletic competition. The Greeks believed that their gods particularly loved to see strong, fit, graceful human bodies, especially boys' and men's bodies. So one way to get on the good side of the gods was to exercise, to eat right, to oil your skin, to create a beautiful body that the gods would love. Because of the Greek tendency to turn everything into an agon, a competition, this also meant that there were a lot of athletic competitions in Greece. The most famous of these is the Olympic Games, but there were other games held in other places as well"

THE WARS

Ancient Greek Infantry

Excellent summary of tactical warfare, armor and weapons, military hierarchy, duty.

The Major Conflicts of Fifth-Century Greece

The Persian Wars

"The Persian Wars begin with the Ionian Revolt and the history of that revolt really begins with Croesus, king of Lydia, located in Asia Minor." And "The Persian Wars were a heroic epoch for Greece in general and for Athens and Sparta in particular. Asia Minor was restored to independence, and Athens and Sparta were the undisputed leaders of Hellas. In the longer term, victory meant Greece was now free to follow its own destiny, and free from outside influences on its culture and society."  Vingettes of every aspect of Persian Wars.  Great summaries.

Persian Wars with Dr. J.

"To learn about how Athens took center stage in the Greek fight against the invading Persians, and why Athens developed such a superiority complex, which led to the founding of the Athenian Empire that ruled the Aegean in the Golden Age of Greece, start with Dr. J's Illustrated Persian Wars."

The Persian Wars

" Like the Trojan War, the Persian Wars were a defining moment in Greek history. The Athenians, who would dominate Greece culturally and politically through the fifth century BC and through part of the fourth, regarded the wars against Persia as their greatest and most characteristic moment. For all their importance, though, the Persian Wars began inauspiciously."

First Persian War

"The First Persian War in 490 B.C. was a brief affair. Intending to punish Athens for its participation in a raid in Asia Minor, Persia sent a small force by Persian standards, about 20,000 infantry and 800 cavalry. The Greeks met this force with 10,000 troops at the plain of Marathon on the west coast of Attica. The combination of Greek tactics, the superiority of their armor, and the new phalanx formation proved decisive in the battle; the Persians were routed."

Second Persian War

The Second Persian War of 481-479 B.C. was a very different proposition. Persia's king, Xerxes, planned to lead a huge expedition to conquer all the Greek states.

Plataea - The Perseus Site - Images
The Great Battle of Salamis

" The great naval battle of Salamis was fought between the Greeks and Persians in 480 BC in the narrow strait between Salamis and Attica. This was one of the last battles of the Persian Wars."

Salamis - Images

Battle At Thermopylae - Heroic Story and Illustrations.  

Herodutus on the Battle of Marathon - Source

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Historical Commentary on the Peloponnesian Wars :  K. Kuhlman

History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides

Peloponnesian War From Think Quest

"The war fell into three phases. First  - ten years of intermittent fighting, concluded by an uneasy truce in 421. This truce phase, named after the Athenian general Nicias, lasted until 415. The final phase began when Athens launched a massive and ill-fated assault against Sicily. Campaign was so catastrophic for Athens that the city barely recovered militarily. In 411 the democracy at Athens was also temporarily overturned, and the city remained in political turmoil for years. When the democracy was restored, its leaders could not agree on truce terms, and many wanted to continue the war at all costs. Fighting went on for the next six years. Athens rebuilt its fleet, while Sparta and its allies created their own navy. The end for Athens came in 405, when the Spartan navy under Lysander decisively defeated the Athenians in the battle of Aegospotami." "The result of the war was the crushing defeat of Athens and the end of its maritime empire. A more long-range result was the weakening of all the city-states. This made them vulnerable to a takeover by Macedonia several decades later."

Peloponnesian War

"Now that the Spartans won (as predicted), what do they do with Athens? Corinth wanted to totally wipe out the whole city and its people. But going around the world had broadened the Spartans a little and they weren't as dumb as they used to be. They realized that if Athens was gone totally, that Corinth would get all their old trade back as well as the Athenian trade and then Corinth would become as obnoxious as Athens had been. So they kept the Athenians around as a counterbalance to Corinth. . . .The Athenian government was changed to an oligarchy with a Spartan patrol left in the city to keep charge. Now, Sparta was the obnoxious one and telling everyone what to do."

Peloponnesian War

"Suspicious and fearful of Athenian power and wealth, the Spartans were not happy with the thirty year peace. . The Athenians themselves had become chauvinistic, power hungry, and seemed ready to begin to reassert their power on the mainland of Greece. In 431, spurred on by a relatively trivial event in a distant part of the Greek mainland, Sparta and Athens fell into another war - The Peloponnesian War. The Spartans wished to fight a land war, which they were very good at. They outnumbered the Athenians two to one, odds they believed the Athenians could stand up to only for a very short time. At the outbreak of the war, then, they invaded Attica and began burning crops in order to starve the Athenians into submission. The Athenians, however, had a harbor and a powerful navy. Pericles knew that they could hold out against the Spartans for several years on the tribute money from the Empire. He also knew that he could take the war right to the doorsteps of Spartan allies, by sailing troops along the coast of Greece and landing them far from Athenian lines. Although Pericles died in the second year of the war in a plague that devestated Athens, the Athenians, nevertheless, kept to the Periclean strategy of prosecuting the war."

THE RULERS, THE CONQUERERS, THE HEROES, POLITICS

15 Ancient Greek Heroes

From Plutarch's Lives.  Theseus, Lycurgus, Solon, Aristides, Pericles, Nicias, Agesilaus, Pelopidas, Dion , Timoleon, Phocion, Pyrrhus, Agis, Philopoemen.

Archaic Government  - Summary of Kings to Aristocracy

Kings of Sparta

Spartan Politics

Ostracism at Athens: The Details

Pericles' Home Page: Brief Biography

" There is no doubt that Pericles was one of those extraordinary people who placed his own stamp on his time and shaped the course of history. He was the leading citizen of a great democracy that had a sharp sense of its own special role in history and of the special excellence of its constitution and way of life. Through his guidance, Athens had a booming economy that produced both wealth and prosperity previously unknown, a combined military and naval power made possible by such wealth, and international responsibilities that stretched resources to the  limit."

Philip:  A Short History

And another good biography here.  "Philip's consolidation of his kingdom and his reduction of Greece to relative peace made possible the campaigns of his son, Alexander the Great. Philip was the true founder of Alexander's army and trained some of his best generals."

Tyrants

ALEXANDER AND MACEDONIA

 

Alexander III of Macedon, better known as Alexander the Great, single-handedly changed the nature of the ancient world in little more than a decade.  From the Great BBC Site.

The Problem of Alexander:  "Alexander the Great is one of the most controversial figures in history. His story has captured the minds and imaginations of countless scholars and laymen. A huge library of work has been amassed regarding this landmark historical figure, and it is growing at an astonishing rate. . . . In 1976, it could be said that books on Alexander were appearing at the rate of more than one a year." Perhaps the reason that Alexander has intrigued so many is because of the multiple explanations for his actions, motivations, and personality.

TEN ! GREAT Reasons Why Alexander Was Great!

Fun site.  What it lacks in absolute scholarly facts, is made up for in creativity!

Alexander the Great: From History to Eternity

It doesn't get any better than this. The Web page as a prelude to the development of an interactive multimedia CD-ROM dedicated to "the most fascinating and enigmatic history personality." Beautifully done site, well researched, carefully presented.

Alexander's First Great Victory

"The Persians hoped to win the Battle of the Granicus by killing Alexander. But in his first major action in Asia, the Macedonian commander employed tactics that would win him an empire. " 

Alexander's Tomb

Alexander's Speech to His Reluctant Soldiers

Great Homepage of Alexander, or Something Like That

Outstanding site. Produced by 3 special students - from  Williams Classics Department. Alexander's First 20 Years - youth, Macedonian army, Greek conquests. Alexander on the Orient Express - Persia, Egypt, Delhi, long road home, good things end. Of Gods and Men - you're a God? Whom did he love? Philip, Olympias.

Macedonia in Ancient Times: Brief History

Brief history.  And here.

Olympias: Mother of Alexander

Plutarch's ALEXANDER:  Plutarch's Great Essay

Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great

HOMER, THE ILIAD, THE ODYSSEY, AND THE TROJAN WAR

Bulfinch's Mythology, The Age of The Trojan War, Part 1 - Nice Essay

Bulfinch's Mythology: The Trojan War - The Iliad

Good summary of interaction of Gods and humans.

Bulfinch - The Odyssey

Conflicting Views of Helen of Troy

Katie Olesker and "Women of Antiquity."  Who was this Helen? "According to some authors, Helen is an inspirational female, transcending the strict boundaries imposed on Greek women. According to others, she is a deceitful and shameful women, the sole cause of the deaths of thousands of brave Geek and Trojan men. We can clearly see in art, literature, and poetry, that Helen is one of the most ambiguous characters of antiquity."

Homer: The Iliad - Complete

Homer: The Odyssey - Complete

Homer's Iliad: Translation by Samuel Butler

Homer Home Page

Probably as much here as one needs to know.

The Iliad - A Practical Approach

Why study it?  Here is the answer.

The Odyssey Game

Great game. Not only for students. Test yourself. Pick a character and be that person. Choose a route. Handle one of the dangers. It is up to you. Creative challenge by Andrew Wilson.

Odyssey:  Based on the Odyssey, Homer's Epic from Greek Mythology

Great site.  Use the short version. Descriptions of all the characters and every location.

TROY (TRUVA) - 4000 years old Ancient City - Overview of the archaeological work.

Troy VII and the Historicity of the Trojan War  - Comparison of facts and myths.

Women in Antiquity

Excellent resource and information.  Much on Homer.  Focus on Greece.

THE THINKERS, SCHOLARS, WRITERS

Aeschylus  : Works by

Full translations of Agamemnon, The Choephori, Eumenides, The Persians, Prometheus Bound, The Seven Against Thebes, The Suppliants.  

Aeschylus Biography

"The 'Father of Tragedy,' Aeschylus was born in 525 B.C. in the city of Eleusis. . . Legend has it that Aeschylus met his death when an eagle mistook his bald head for a rock and dropped a tortoise on it. Whatever the cause of his death, his life laid the groundwork the dramatic arts would need to flourish, and by the time of his death, there were two notable successors ready to take his place--Sophocles and Euripides. In addition, Aeschylus left behind two sons who would carry on his dramatic legacy."

Aeschylus and His Tragedies

"Aeschylus was the only man of his age, or indeed of any age, who can compare with the great master of the modern drama in sublimity of conception and grandeur of poetic imagery. As to the esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries and his immediate posterity there is sufficient evidence, and first in the Frogs of Aristophanes, who there describes his temper as proud, stern and impatient; his sentiments as pure, noble and warlike; his genius inventive, magnificent and towering; his style lofty, bold and impetuous, full of gorgeous imagery and ponderous expressions, while in the dramatic arrangement of his pieces there remained much of ancient simplicity and somewhat of uncouth rudeness. Dionysius of Halicarnassus lauds the splendor of his talents, the propriety of his characters, the originality of his ideas and the force, variety and beauty of his language."

Aeschylus-Agamemnon

Archimedes Home Page

Archimedean miscellanea, more interesting because of information on subjects including siege of Syracuse, the Archimedes' screw, solids, spheres, coins.

Archimedes of Syracuse: History

His life, his greatest contributions in geometry, references to major theories and explanation and commentary.

Aristotle

"Aristotle is considered one of the greatest minds of classical Greece. Dante even proclaimed him 'the master of those who know.' He made tremendous contributions in the areas of science and mathematics, not to mention philosophy. In fact, he contributed extensively to chemistry, physics, biology, created formal logic, thoroughly studied systems of government, and developed a biological classification system. The majority of those alive at the time took greater stock in his political philosophies. . Aristotle was one of the first men to explore science, anatomy, and the animal kingdom in depth and to recognize his considerable contribution to philosophy."

Aristotle - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Life, writings, ideas.  Extensive.

Aristotle: Poetics - Complete Text

Aristotle: Summary of His Life

Aristophanes: The Frogs - Complete Play

And here for the Man!  "The plays of Aristophanes are the only surviving complete examples of Old Greek Comedy, all written between 427 and 385 B.C. His contemporaries thought highly of his works, and awarded him many prizes for his plays. . .Aristophanes' plays have remained important throughout the years as the work of a master playwright and have achieved notoriety because they are the only surviving examples of Old Greek Comedy."

Euclid: Biography

Euclid's Elements, Introduction

Brings "Elements" alive using the geometry applet. Links and background.

Euripedes

Edith Hamilton's great essay on Euripides.  "EURIPIDES 'with all his faults the most tragic of the poets,"said Aristotle, supreme among critics, whose claim to pronounce ever the final verdict has only of late been called into question. His judgment here points the latter-day attitude toward him: the great critic was wrong; he confused sadness and tragedy. Euripides is the saddest of the poets and for that very reason not the most tragic. A very great tragedian, beyond all question, one of the world's four greatest, to all of whom belongs that strangest power, so to present the spectacle of pain that we are lifted to what we truly call the height of tragedy."

Euripides Home Page - Excellent background and his life and plays.

Greek Astronomy: A Brief Glance - The revival of an ancient science.

Greek Mathematics and its Modern Heirs

Classical roots of the scientific revolution. For over a thousand years, Greek mathematicians maintained a special tradition of work in the exact sciences. From the Vatican Library.

Herodotus of Halicarnassus

Excellent background, life, excerpts.  "The Greek storyteller Herodotus was the world's first historian. In The Histories, he describes the expansion of the Persian Empire under its kings Cyrus, Cambyses and Darius, culminating in king Xerxes' expedition against the Greeks, which met with disaster in the naval engagement at Salamis and the battles at Plataea and Mycale. Book also contains excellent ethnographic descriptions of the peoples that the Persians have conquered, fairy tales, gossip, legends, and a very humanitarian morale."

Herodotus  - The Histories, Complete

Hippocrates: The Oath  and All His Works Translated

HOMER:  See Previous "Chapter" Devoted To

Library at Alexandra - One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The Origin of Philosophy:  Why the Greeks?

"What was different about the Greeks that led to the origin of philosophy with them? Years ago, the simple answer might have been that the Greeks were "different," they just had some kind of special "genius" that enabled them to think about things in new and different ways. That kind of answer is unsatisfactory, not only because it doesn't really explain anything, not only because it sounds disturbingly like some kind of racism (the Greeks just must have been genetically different), but because it cannot then in turn explain why philosophy only occurred among some Greeks (e.g. Milesians, Athenians, etc.) and not among others (e.g. Spartans)."

Sappho

"One of the great Greek lyrists and few known female poets of the ancient world, Sappho was born some time between 630 and 612 BC. She was an aristocrat who married a prosperous merchant, and she had a daughter named Cleis. Her wealth afforded her with the opportunity to live her life as she chose, and she chose to spend it studying the arts on the isle of Lesbos. . . Sappho was called a lyrist because, as was the custom of the time, she wrote her poems to be performed with the accompaniment of a lyre. Sappho composed her own music and refined the prevailing lyric meter to a point that it is now known as sapphic meter. She innovated lyric poetry both in technique and style, becoming part of a new wave of Greek lyrists who moved from writing poetry from the point of view of gods and muses to the personal vantage point of the individual. She was one of the first poets to write from the first person, describing love and loss as it affected her personally. . . . From ancient times to today, Sappho has remained an important literary and cultural figure. Her works continued to be studied and translated, new poets are inspired by her constantly, and speculation on her life remains popular in the form of fictionalized tales and ardent research. For a woman who has been dead for over two thousand years, this is quite an achievement."  

Sophocles - The Influences of History

"Sophocles was one of the three great playwrights of Greece during the Classical Period, a one hundred year span from 500 to 400 BC. It was a very eventful time for Greece, and for the city of Athens, where Sophocles lived. There were several wars which influenced the lives of the people of Athens, including Sophocles, who often wrote about war in his plays. . His lifetime covered the most glorious time of Athenian history. He took a big part in that history by writing about the events in his plays, and by being a politician later in his life.   During his lifetime it is estimated that Sophocles wrote 123 tragic, or sad, plays. Today there are only seven left that we can still read."

Sophocles :  Complete Texts

Thucydides: History of the Peloponnesian War - Complete

Thucydides and the Writing of History

Thucydides and his Importance

"Thucydides, an Athenian aristocrat, was probably in his late twenties at the time the War began; he realized its importance from the start and began to plan to write its history. In 424 he was elected one of the Athenian  generals, and for failing to prevent the loss of an important city to the Spartans was exiled from Athens. He spent the rest of the War collecting evidence and talking with participants in the various actions. Herodotus, writing a few decades earlier than Thucydides, recorded almost all he heard, whether he believed it himself or not. Thucydides stands at the other pole; he gathers all available evidence, decides what he thinks is the truth, then shapes his presentation to emphasize that truth. We see everything through his eyes, and his views on the forces which shape human events emerge on every page."  And on to The Melian Dialogue.

Tech Classics Archive

Indispensable searchable archive of 400+ classical Greek and Roman texts in translation.

PLATO/SOCRATES

Plato for the Young Inquirer

"Just before he died, we are told, Plato dreamed that he was changed into a swan, and, flying from tree to tree, caused much trouble for the bird-catchers who vainly tried to take him. Simmias, the companion of Socrates, interpreted the dream to signify that all men desire to catch the spirit of Plato but none would succeed, for each would interpret him in his own fashion.""

Plato: Almost Complete - Translated Here

Plato and His Dialogues: Essay - From Exploring Ancient World Cultures.  Detailed analytical article.

Plato's Apology - Socrates' Famous Defense

Plato's The Cave

Andrew Wilson's wonderful and informative "cave."  Do not miss this one.

Plato's Symposium

Socrates

"Socrates contribution to philosophy is immeasurable. His practice of philosophy is a turning point in the history of the subject - away from philosophy as a study of the natural world to  philosophy as the study of human nature. Socrates is used as a dividing line when discussing the history of philosophy. The terms "socratic" and "presocratic" are used to distinguish events in philosophy's timeline the same way BC and AD are used, relative to the birth of Christ, as a dividing line in world history."

The Last Days of Socrates

Socrates:  Philosophy's Martyr

"How was Socrates different from other martyrs? - What sort of man was he? - What is Socratic irony? - Was he put on trial for political reasons? - What was his attitude to religion? - Why were the Athenians sick of him? - Is Plato's Socrates the real Socrates? - How did his views differ from Plato's? - How come we know anything at all about him? - What was his theory about virtue? - Why did he say that a good man cannot be harmed? - Was he just naive? - Why does he count as a philosopher? - Why were many of his followers so strange? - His legacy?"  Excerpts from Andrew Gottlieb's major book:   The trial, Socrates versus Plato, The Cynics and Socrates.

Socrates Had It Coming!

"In the course of Western Civilization, there have been two trials ending in a sentence of death imposed upon two individuals later deemed grossly unfair and unjust by the verdict of history. One trial was that of Jesus Christ, the other that of Socrates. Of course, it can be said with justification that each man steered a course that ended with a fatal termination from the power structure of the time.  It was Jesus' destiny.  It was Socrates' choice. Both philosophers and theologians, by defining proper moral conduct, carry a political message, a message apt to rub the ruling power structure's nose in its own mess. Honesty is a dangerous double-edged sword wielded by a messenger of truth speaking to power. Christ defined and built a new moral order. All Socrates ever accomplished was questioning and probing the democratic beliefs of his day."  Fascinating, well written article!

Socrates, Life and Deeds

Long analysis. "On the last day of his life his chains were removed, and he was visited by his wife Xanthippe and his little boy in her arms as well as by his friends in philosophy.  When the guard suggested that excessive talking and excitement might hinder the effect of the poison, Socrates refused to stop talking and declared that he would drink it twice or three times if necessary. As sunset approached, Socrates went to bathe in order to save the women the trouble of bathing the corpse. When Crito asked how they should bury him, Socrates replied he would have to catch him first, meaning the soul, but that they might bury the body in the way they felt was appropriate. After bathing, he said goodby to his wife and three sons. Not allowing any delay of the correct procedure, Socrates followed the instructions in drinking the poison and walking around until his legs felt heavy. Then he laid down on his back, covering himself up. He removed the cover for a moment to ask his friend Crito to pay a debt for him to Aesculapius, the god of healing. He covered his body again, and a moment later he died."

THE HELLENIC IMPACT AND INFLUENCE

Hellenistic Greece

"In spite of the political turbulence and chaos of the fourth century BC, Greece was poised on its most triumphant period: the Hellenistic age. The word, Hellenistic, is derived from the word, Hellene, which was the Greek word for the Greeks. The Hellenistic age was the "age of the Greeks; during this time, Greek culture and power extended itself across the known world. While the classical age of Greece produced great literature, poetry, philosophy, drama, and art, the Hellenistic age "hellenized" the world. At the root of Hellenism were the conquests of Philip of Macedon and his son, Alexander."

The Hellenistic World

"This led to large-scale immigration of Macedonians and Greeks into these areas. To accommodate them, the kings built new cities based on the Greek model (in order to make the immigrants feel more at home). The end result was that a person could travel almost anywhere in the Mediterranean world and come into contact with elements of Greek culture. Many natives began to realize that the way to become an elite was to adopt Greek characteristics, so more and more people began to speak Greek and to acquire Greek educations. Thus, the Hellenistic Age got its name from the term "hellene," which was how the Greeks referred to themselves. The Hellenistic Age basically refers to a period of the intense borrowing of all things Greek.  

Other characteristics of this period include peace, prosperity and personal crisis. It was overall a peaceful time because the soldiers were drawn from the supply of Greeks and Macedonians. Since this supply was limited, army size was also limited so kings discovered it was wiser to solve disputes by diplomatic means."  Some of the claims here are a bit stronger than accurate.

Hellenistic Civilization

"As the Greeks penetrated the Middle East, the increasingly urban, upper-class character of Greek  home civilization helped to spread it among the landlords and other upper class men abroad. The Greek style of life, which included such things as athletics in the nude and dancing girls as well as philosophy and poetry, appealed strongly to many of these men. Greeks, as a rule, were willing to admit such recruits to their circle as soon as the neophytes acquired a suitable Greek educator and set of manners. Even the lower classes found it convenient or necessary to learn Greek, which rapidly became the dominant language of the entire eastern Mediterranean, displacing Aramaic from that position within two or three centuries of Alexander's victories.

"At first everything seemed to go one way. Middle Eastern peoples borrowed arts and manners from the Greeks while the conquerors found little in the life of their subjects to admire or imitate. But before long cultural borrowing became a two-way street. The lower classes, for instance, found in Middle Eastern religions a far more adequate explanation of the world than anything available to them from the Greek tradition. ...The poor and humble of the great Mediterranean cities needed a religion that could comfort them in times of personal distress, and help them hope for a better future. ...So, the dispersion of Hellenistic civilization over most of the populated parts of the western world between 500 BC and 200 AD is a case study in a general tendency - not to say law - of civilization. It tends to grow and develop to a high level in a particular area because economic, social and political factors coalesce to make it possible. It flourished for a few centuries and then begins to disintegrate.

"The reasons for that decline are manifold, but they all seem to relate to the economic and social foundations in some degree. When this foundation weakens, by the development of class distinctions or social and economic disparities, the high level of cultural achievement looses vitality and strength. The culture does not necessarily die and vanish. It tends to be dispersed first to the barbaric neighbors who invade and then spread to other parts of the world which they conquered.  In this way Greek culture spread to the whole Mediterranean basin by the Macedonians and the Romans, both peoples whose native cultures were certainly inferior to the subjugated Greeks. Thus, even barbarians, a term the Greeks invented, play a useful role, as carriers and disseminators of culture. They fulfill a kind of world-civilizing mission. Thanks to the Macedonians and Romans, Hellenistic civilization, a generalized form of Greek culture, became an integral part of the classical tradition in WC. "

Hellenistic Philosophy - Decent Summary

The Hellenistic World - Superb and Essential Material from the Internet Ancient History Source Book

Especially Paul Hasall's "Hellenistic Culture," and the main page's list by category of important primary sources.

The Three Empires - Excellent summary

" Despite the constant conflict, the Hellenistic world was an incredibly prosperous one. Alexander and his successors had liberated an immense amount of wealth from the Persian empire, and with this new wealth in circulation the standard of living rose dramatically. Each of the empires embarked on building projects, on scholarship, on patronage of the arts, and on literature and philosophy. The Ptolemies built an enormous library in their capital city of Alexandria, and sponsored the translation of a host of religious and literary works into Greek.   This period really marked the first international culture in western, middle eastern, and north African history. The Greeks imported their culture: political theory, philosophy, art, and literature all over the known civilized world. This culture would greatly alter the culture and religion of the Mediterannean.

But the flow of culture worked in the opposite direction as well; non-Greek ideas and non-Greeks flowed into Greece (and Italy). They took with them their religions, their philosophies, science, and culture; in this environment, eastern religions in particular began to take hold in the Greek city-states both in the east and in Greece. Among these religions was Zoroastrianism and Mithraism; in later years, this international environment would provide the means for the spread of another eastern religion, Christianity.

This process of the "hellenization" ("making Greek") of the world took place largely in the urban centers the Greeks began to zealously build. While the Greeks had for a long time believed that monarchy was a sign of barbarity, they had to come to terms with the reality of their new form of government. So they compromised."

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THE MYSTERY THAT WAS EGYPT

The Egyptians carry a fascination for us that transcends time. And always the sense of strangeness and mystery. Videos, TV programs from Omar Shariff and the "Mysteries of the Pyramids," to Charleton Heston and "The Mystery of the Sphinx," and "Cleopatra: Destiny's Queen," and the "Chariots of the Gods," and the "Visit of the Aliens." How could the history of one nation span 3000 years? How did they build such remarkable monuments to antiquity? Why did intelligent humans mummify themselves? Where did their genius come from? Why do most history books on Western Civilization allot this culture only a scant twenty pages at best? Why do many people "forget" that Egypt is and always has been in Africa?

The themes which follow give credence to the richness of the Egyptian civilization AND to the Web.

 To Part I-Egypt, Prehistory, Other Ancients   

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THE POWER THAT WAS ROME

The land of the citizen statesmen, the Emperors, the warriors, the Caesars. The power of an Empire that conquered most of what we know of as Europe, ruled it, linked its roads and laws with it, exported its culture and language to it. Baths, plumbing, food, religion, architecture, drama, walls, palaces, slaves and servants. Political strategy, diplomacy, and philosophy. Words falter in capturing this mighty civilization with its weaknesses and strengths, its triumphs and its calamities.

   To Part III-Rome     

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ANCIENT CULTURES: SPANNING AND CONNECTING

So many lands, empires, city states, territories, peoples, cultures, beliefs, symbols. Sometimes it is difficult to see the forest for the trees; to notice the patterns; to sense the human interrelatedness; to catch the common or similar fears, aspirations, dreams, brutalities, misunderstandings, and strivings to know. Yet the continuities and common themes loom every bit as important as the often perceived "Tower of Babel." After you have finished with Prehistory, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the other ancient civilizations, then end with this Spanning and Connecting Chapter.  This OVERVIEW bridges all the civilizations and deals with special places, archaeology, arts and antiquity, cities, sites, cultures and culture, medicine and science, women, history and literature, myths, magic, legend, warfare, sources, lists.

             To Part IV-Bridges        

Major Web College History Courses:

The Special Western Civilization Series

Professor K. F.

COURSE CENTERS AND WEB INTERNET BOOKS

• History 4A- WESTERN CIVILIZATION: THE ANCIENT WORLD

  Act I: From Prehistory to the Fall of Rome

  (Every quarter including summer, usually)

• History 4B - WESTERN CIVILIZATION: THE MEDIEVAL, RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION WORLD

  Act II: From the Fall of Rome to the French Revolution

  (Winter)

• History 4C- WESTERN CIVILIZATION: THE MODERN WORLD

  Act III: From The French Revolution to the Fall of the Berlin Wall

  (Fall , Spring , Summer)

• 4 Quarter Units Each.
• Identical in Content, Rigor, Requirements, Assignments, Exams, to On-Campus College Course, fully articulated with all California Universities.
• The Online Course Information Site and Summary Syllabus for History 4A:  Western Civilization:  The Ancient World - Act I
• The Online Course Information Site and Summary Syllabus for History 4B:  Western Civilization: The Medieval Renaissance World - Act II
• The Online Course Information Site and Summary Syllabus for History 4C:  Western Civilization:  The Modern World - Act III
  For Registration and Process/Course Information, Contact Global Access Courses at the FOOTHILL COLLEGE SITE.  

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