The PREMIER JOURNEY to The Ancient World, weaving together  the Peoples of those lands and civilizations and the way they lived and - their thoughts, their hopes, their dreams, their lives.

What is the Ancient World?   Greece, Rome, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Babylon, Sumer, Nubia, Persia, Byzantium, Turkey?  Or is it Assyrians, Chaldeans, Hebrews, Hittites, Akkadians, Etruscans, Minoans?  Is it Alexander, Plato, Virgil, Socrates, Hammurabi, Aristotle, Nefertiti, the Pharaohs, Emperors, Caesar, Cleopatra, Sargon, Akhenaton, the Black Athena, Homer? Or is it the dinosaurs, Stonehenge, hunters, slaves, women, rulers, soldiers, or the Iliad, the Aeneid, the Odyssey, the Olympics? Is it found in the ruins, temples, forums, pyramids or in the remnants of ordinary life?  Explore through this Web Book and the Online College Course.

  Ancient Civilization did not begin in what we think of as the West. It did not start in Paris or Berlin or London or Prague or Brussels or Stockholm. It grew out of the Mediterranean breezes, the sun and desert of Northern Africa, the Persian and West Asian lands. To study Ancient Civilization is to travel - across parts of Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, and Asia to India. It is a linking voyage, not a reducing trip. It CONNECTS peoples, ideas, patterns, developments, organizations, wars, religions, art, architecture, food and drink. It is a human endeavor about a human story.

I am an historian, not a classicist.  And historians and classicists are not the same.  They focus and work differently.  But the challenge of it all is that understanding can only come by standing on the mountain and looking at the parts in the whole. An historian of this time (from the beginning of time through Egypt, Greece, to the fall of Rome) must be willing and eager to reach out and know that all knowledge is important. I built this Ancient Civilization arena for people - for students, faculty, and ordinary folks who think it is fascinating and can be just plain fun. Just like our lives, in this Arena there is much seriousness but also much joy and animation.

And the wonderful range of things to think about? Culture, archaeology, art, music, theater, books and writing, language, philosophy, politics, peace and war, life and living. Psychology, sociology, history, geometry and astronomy and biology, building and architecture and engineering. Economics and geography, women and men and children, farming and town planning, rivers and deserts and mountains, gods and goddesses. Birth and death, magic and mystery, aspiration and despair, palaces and mud huts, the freedom to rule empires, and the chains of everlasting slavery. Poetry, logic, weaponry, sports, courage and cowardice, love and hate, and genius.

Return to Master Core - Amazing Ancient World

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ANCIENT SOURCES:A BEGINNING

The Web teems with the richness of the Ancient World.  So many wonderfully conceived sites representing dedication, scholarship, diversity, determination and exceptional creativity.  At least 400 lists exist for the ancient area. But, what good, I wondered, is yet another list. So this Ancient Arena is explained each step of the way. By looking through the material in the Chapters on this Page, one can attain a general overview of the place, the time, the subject matter, the humans. Then the searcher can move to the areas of interest or even fascination - and begin the in-depth "clicking" and traveling and thinking.  My pledge to the voyager is simple: I place here only those sites and destinations in which I have spent time and thought. I have searched through each one with care.

 We begin with the Big Five Destinations: The Land Almost Before Time
The Mystery that was Egypt
    The Glory that was Greece
The Power that was Rome
The Complexity that was the Other Ancients

THE POWER THAT WAS ROME

The land of the citizen statesmen, the Emperors, the warriors, the Caesars. The power of an Empire that conquered most of what we know of as Europe, ruled it, linked its roads and laws with it, exported its culture and language to it. Baths, plumbing, food, religion, architecture, drama, walls, palaces, slaves and servants. Political strategy, diplomacy, and philosophy. Words falter in capturing this mighty civilization with its weaknesses and strengths, its triumphs and its calamities.

Waiting for the Barbarians - Cavafy

SPECIAL PLACES

SPQR Online: The Life, The Times, The Legacy

Doesn't get much better than this.  THIS IS THE FORUM. ""SPQR" :stands for "Senatus Populusque Romanus." (The Senate and People of Rome) Latin motto of the Ancient Roman Empire that sounded imperial glory for millennia. "Enter SPQR Online, and explore the interactive journey through the society and culture of Ancient Rome - a city whose influence continues to exert itself on modern civilization. A knowledge database, SPQR Online provides a comprehensive resource on the legacy of this great empire." Many interactive features, such as a Roman postcard generator and mailing list.  "Res Militaris" - the Roman army:  units, officers, life, equipment, organization, battles. "Domun" - Hello to daily life, biographies, houses, fashions, det, et. al. Pantheon and the ancient myths. History and government from Monarchy through Republic to  Empire HERE. Arts and Sciences. Geography and Landmarks.  

The Real SPQR Game is Back!

Great Play

Frontline: From Jesus to Christ - The First Christians

Decent site for history- But use carefully  Overview of the ancient world in which Christianity originated, maps, facts. Sponsored by PBS. Articles on many different aspects of early Chritianity. Includes page on role of women in early Christianity.  

The Famous AncientSites Site is Back!

"AncientSites was Built on a Dream.  The dream was that thousands of people interested in Ancient History could roam the streets of long forgotten cities and, in a sense, get into the mentality of our ancient forbearers through a combination of historical research and discussion, social activities, and roleplay and other games. After several years of construction and growth, the dotcom bust took away, forcing AncientSites to close its doors and fold as a economic entity, on March 30, 2001. But the dream lives on - As CyberSites, the company that had formed to create educational games.   Some of  the remaining material is excellent, some not so.  But the discussions on Rome are passionate.

Gazetteer of the Roman World

Rome - 254 pages, 204 photos, 166 drawings, 21 plans, 7 maps!:  Includes the Palantine Hill, Villa Borghese Gardens, Trajan's Columns, Constantine's Arch.  Tombs, Ostia, Waterworks, Theatres, Mauretania Tingitana.  Wonderful pictures and info.  Use the Search Machine.  

Daily Life in Ancient Rome

Baths, Entertainment, Eating, Roman Families, Clothing/Hair, Styles, Houses, Weddings, The Forum, Toys, Games, Life in the Country, School! Great Builders.  

Ostia - Harbor of Ancient Rome

First-rate Rome site by "an enthusiastic group of people, Internet Group Ostia (IGO)." History, plans, archives, texts.

Roman Art and Architecture:  Excellent Collection - Images, Sculpture, Art

Roman Numerals - Help For All of Us!

"The Romans were active in trade and commerce, and . . . they needed a way to indicate numbers. The system they developed lasted many centuries, and still sees some specialized use today."  HANDY CONVERTER.  Just type in your number and presto!

THE OVERALL HISTORY THAT EXPLORES IT

A Brief History of Ancient Rome

"The Roman Empire is remembered today as perhaps the greatest civilization ever to exist. Site will attempt to describe the evolution of a small tribe growing to its peak, then leading to its downfall. . . .Divided into the different political phases of Rome. Link containing brief description of the event/ruler is included beside the date. By clicking links, find out about the event in greater detail. Site best used for understanding the general history of Rome, and background information on specific topics. "

Roman History

"Roman history begins in a small village in central Italy; this unassuming village would grow into a small metropolis, conquer and control all of Italy, southern Europe, the Middle East, and Egypt, and find itself, by the start of AD time, the most powerful and largest empire in the world. They managed what no other people had managed before: they ruled the entire world under a single administration for a considerable amount of time. This imperial rule, which extended from Great Britain to Egypt, from Spain to Mesopotamia, was a period of remarkable peace. The Romans would look to their empire as the instrument that brought law and justice to the rest of the world.   They were, however, a military state, and they ruled over this vast territory by maintaining a strong military presence in subject countries."

Outstanding Time Lines and Readings from Original Sources

450 BCE-175 BCE
175 BCE-100 BCE
100 BCE-1 BCE
300 CE-600 CE

HyperHistoryOnline

Use for the Roman period to establish timelines, history, people in relation to the rest of the world.

THE REPUBLIC

Rise of Rome

From Legend to Republic.  Long article detailing the history.

The Monarchy - Excellent Summary

The Roman Republic

Summary history.  

The Roman Republic From 509 B. C. Until the Elevation of Augustus

Excellent chart of the organization. Who does what! "With its Consuls, Senators, Praetors, Lictors, Quaestors, Aediles, and Rich Boy's Club Governing Style, the Roman Republic Was Not Much Like Our Own Government Except in Name."  Magistrates, counsuls, 1st and 2nd triumverate.  Then go HERE.

THE EMPIRE

Roman Empire and Dictatorship : Detailed History

The Roman Empire  - Best Clear History - Click into SPQR

Rome: Map of the Empire

A picture is worth a thousand something-or-others. Outstanding addition to understanding the Empire. Shows 54 separate provinces in the World. Map is clickable by province - and the click brings up a good site list for many of the provinces. Britannia is particularly interesting.

THE PEOPLES WHO "FORERAN IT"

The Mysterious Etruscans

"Nearly the whole of Italy was once under Etruscan Rule ,"- Cato 2nd Century BCE.  Full site.  This is the PLACE! Etruscan art, cities, history, religion tombs, lifestyle.  The Etruscans and the sea, territory, engineering and agriculture, language, museums.
"The Etruscans went on to lay the foundation of the city of Rome, to clear the shepherds huts which once littered the Palatine Hill, to drain the swamps and transform what had been a collection of tribal sheep herders into a true city which would eventually dominate large tracts of Europe, Asia and North Africa. From the Etruscans came writing, and Roman history was born in the true sense."
" I can never succeed in understanding why Italians still fail to recognize the enormous contribution that the Etruscan civilization has made to our Western civilization. We keep on believing the teaching that the Greeks and above all the Romans are the peoples to whom the Western world owes its origins. All of this is considerably exaggerated and based on historical falsehoods. However, I have ascertained instead that it is the Etruscans, coming from the East, who are the true founders of our European culture, for both good and bad aspects. This truth continues to be understated and at times hindered by various Italian historians while it has been being recognized for numerous decades by the majority of the historians of the whole world. "

Etruscan Background

"The Etruscans have fascinated scholars and Romantics since the Renaissance: almost alone in early Italy they spoke a non-Indo-European language, even now untranslated. Wealthy traders, they were the patrons and perpetrators of a startling and luxuriant art. Fascinated with death, exotic in their pursuit of pleasure, savage in warfare and in many of their amusements. Roman historians, with reluctance and ambivalence, record powerful Etruscan kings as major players in developing sixth century Rome into a true city with a paved and drained forum and impressive temples. Historians ever since have enumerated Etruscan gifts to Roman culture: the engineering of roads, drainage systems, bridges and walls; complex systems of divination by observing the flight of birds or examining animal entrails; cultural customs like gladiatorial games; triumphal procession rituals; and the insignia (and perhaps some of the practices) of political officials."

Windows On Italy - History: the Early Italic Tribes

THE CENTER OF IT: ALL ROADS LEAD TO ROME

Ancient World Civilizations: Ancient Rome

Monuments of Rome - Fine Collection

And then to the A-Z Guide.

Rome:  A Reconstruction of the Ancient City - Excellent Images

Rome Project: Map Resources - Excellent List

AND THE ROADS CONNECT THE EMPIRE

The Evils of Rome

Slavery, bloody games, religious persecutions, ordered suicides, insane emperors, cruel emperors.

The Glory That Was Rome

"Arms and Tactics, Great Battles and Campaigns, Siege Warfare and Fortification, Commanders, Emperors, Timeline."

Ideology, Identity and Empire -- The Romans

"The period of Greek expansion (800-300 B.C.) was also the period when the Roman Republic was founded and beginning its rise to empire. If Rome was far more successful in building an empire, it is in large part due to their creation of a more inclusive ideology of citizenship than achieved by any Greek city. The Romans were, of course, very good soldiers, who in Rome's early centuries lived by a very severe standard of public virtue. Citizens sacrificed themselves in war for the good of the community and profited and gloried in common success. But the key to Roman expansion was the willingness of the citizens to share the benefits of citizenship with others.  This can be seen in the unusual Roman attitude to slavery. Romans, like Greeks and everyone else, kept slaves, for service around the house, to extend the productive power of the household, for dirty and dangerous work like mining. In most ancient cultures, slaves were slaves until death. The Romans, however, were willing to free their most useful servants; not only free them, but grant them citizenship, a share in public affairs (res publica). "

The Landings of Caesar in Britain, 55 and 54 BC

"For this period, Caesar is the only extant source providing first-hand descriptions of Britain. His observations, while confined to the southeast areas of Kent and the lower Thames, are thus essential to understanding those regions. While no doubt self-serving in a political sense when written, Caesar's account is nevertheless regarded as basically accurate and historically reliable."

Latin 2 - History:  The Monarchy and the Kings of Rome.

Roman Empire

Special site by Coolmine Community School in Dublin, Ireland. The summary write-ups on hippodrome, empire, army, baths, clothes, emperors, entertainment, politics, theatre, Julius Caesar are great basic essays.

Roman Military Sites in Britain

"Fortresses, forts, watchtowers, temporary camps, depots and industrial sites, built by the Roman Army in Britain. Background material on the Roman Army and the military history of the province." Professional tour de force .  A must for studying the Empire.

The Romans - Welcome to Roman History

The BBC Roman History Page.  Investigates range of areas.  Who Were the Romans? City, Republic, Empire, Emperors, Senators, technology, leisure, education, army, religion, end of Rome.  Take a quiz! Intended for kids but...!

THE GOVERNMENT THAT "GOVERNED" IT

The Roman Constitution:  As Explained and Described by Cicero

Rome Political Life : Eras of the kings, the Republic, the Empire.

The Roman Senate

"The story of the Roman Senate goes way back to a time before there was an accurate written history for Rome. The Senate was composed of leading citizens who were members of the original aristocratic families in the old Republic. The original purpose of this group was to advise the King."  And HERE.

Evolution of the Roman Government During the Early Republic

"When the modern student of Roman history begins to study the government of early Rome, he or she is often confused by the many offices, magistracies, assemblies, military systems, power shifts, and unfamiliar terms associated with the Roman system(s) of government. Furthermore, the earliest history of Rome consists of your choice of some of the finest epic poetry ever written or a few shovels full of mud containing some artifacts and traces of primitive settlements on the Palatine and Quirinal Hills. In order for us to begin to understand the evolution of Roman government, we must briefly review the process of phenomenal growth and expansion that tells the story of this city so unique in history. "

Political Offices in the Roman Republic

Political advancement during the late Republic.

Roman Administration and Towns

The Roman invasion of Britain brought about great changes in the way the country was run. Instead of politics dependent on war and peace among the various tribes, the country now formed part of a vast empire ruled from Rome. The Roman Empire was divided into provinces nominally ruled by the Senate in Rome or by the Emperor on the Senate's behalf. Newly acquired areas almost always came under the rule of the Emperor. He would then entrust these areas into the power of a governor, or 'legatus Augusti pro praetore', who was both commander-in-chief of the army in the province and head of the civilian administration.

THE RELIGIONS AND BELIEFS THAT SUSTAINED IT

Ancient Rome Funerals

"Throughout history, different cultures had various views about the concept of death . . . These views continually change, as do methods of treating bodies of the dead. Like many peoples in ancient times, the Romans had a short life expectancy due to diseases, limited medical knowledge. . They also died easily because of gladiatorial combats, wars, and even human sacrifice. However, funerary rituals and practices played an essential part in Roman life because the Romans believed that remembering and honouring the deceased members of their family was very important and also a proper burial was necessary for the afterlife."

Catacombs of Rome

Mixture - and here ! !

The Cosmic Mysteries of Mithras

Important essay from David Ulansey.

Mithraism - Excellent summary from Exploring World Cultures

Gods and Goddesses of Rome

Roman Death

"As Christianity spreads through the west, the attitudes about death, dying and the afterlife radically change. The Roman Empire is strewn with countless reminders of the lives, and the deaths of its peoples. The Romans seemed to have an obsession with being remembered after their death. This obsession is shown by their overabundance of funerary remains, ranging from sarcophagi to epitaphs and grave goods. By observing these relics closely, inferences can be made about the ways the Romans lived and died.. . . About half the Roman population could expect to live until they were about 50, as a result of poor diet, poor medical care and disease, particularly amongst the lower classes. However, a few did survive into their eighties. Over the years funereal fashions changed from cremation, where the burnt body was buried in a pottery or glass vessel, to inhumation, where the whole body was buried often with objects from their daily life, including pottery and jewellery. Coins were usually placed with the body in accordance with belief in an afterlife. Cemeteries were always outside the town walls, and tombs, and sometimes large monuments to the dead, lined the roads that led away from the town." Go to these sites:  #1,  and this great "Cremation in a Roman Town.

The Roman Virtues:  Old Rome.

Religio Romana:   Roman Religion in Antiquity

Click to Family in Rome - De Lares et di Penates.  Then Roman Beliefs About After Life.

Religion and the Roman Empire -- Christianity

"The strength of Christianity was that it offered both definitive answers to the religious longings of the age for eternal life and contact with the divine, and a strong community structure in which salvation could be worked out. . . It was the bishops who taught and defined Christian doctrines and discipline; who admitted people to full membership and eternal life through baptism; who could cast sinners into the outer darkness through excommunication. They also . . . controlled the common funds that were distributed as charity to members in need. The more dedicated were celibate (post-marital celibacy being most common). Unlike pagan priests, they formed a clergy -- an order set apart from ordinary believers by divine law."

The Vestal Virgins:   Handmaidens of the Hearth

"Hearth and home are the backbone of Roman society. The Goddess of the Hearth, Vesta, has at her disposal, the white-clad, whit-veiled nuns of her temple. These women, all from the finest families of Rome, are charged with never allowing Rome's Vestal fire go out. To do so would be to bring bad omens and bad luck to Rome -  the unthinkable sin."

THE CUSTOMS, LANGUAGE,  LIFE AND CULTURE WHICH REFLECTED IT

Calendars!

"Why did the Western calendar's architects short-change February by two or three days? A thirty-day  February would provide a much more symmetrical means of marking the year's progress. One additional day beyond February's twenty-eight could easily have been taken from each of two thirty-one day months to give February its fair share." From here click to 8th to 4th Century B.C. Calendar Changes, Early Roman Calendars, Julian Calendar, Octavian's Calendar Changes.  Early Roman Calendars - how the whole mess got straightened out.

Roman Calendar

"What day is today? Is it just another weekday, or some great ancient festival? How about your birthday? Is it sacred to some god in the Roman Pantheon? Our ancient ancestors always knew what day it was -- they had a calendar so constant it was chiseled in stone and painted on walls in their homes. The days had names, not numbers, and the holidays were celebrated universally."

Culture of Roma

"Year after year thanks to its victories all around the world Roman culture evolved, influenced by the usage and customs of the conquered populations."  Family, education, clothes, house, food.

A Normal Day in Rome

Latin 2 - Culture

Collection of info and essays. Aqueducts, calendar, education, entertainment, food, law/government, marriage, medicine, military, money, religion/philosophy, baths, shopping and trading.

Carmina Popularia:   Latin Translations of Some Popular Songs

Sing your favorite songs in Latin!  From Blowin in the Wind to Puff the Magic Dragon.

Classical Love Poetry - Wonderful Roman poetry.

Roman Ball Games

Popularity of ball-playing including handball, soccer, field hockey, dodge ball. How to play the ancient games. Pictures.

Romans at Work and at Play

"History is more than the study of wars and governmental institutions. It is essentially the story of people in their eternal confrontation with each other and with the forces of nature." Interesting mini-lecture by Professor G. Rempel.

Sample Plan of a Roman House

"Click on the rooms in this plan for more information about each area of the Roman house."  Wonderful.

Roman Numeral Converter

THE BATHS

Roman Baths and Bathing

Pictures, details, comments on this vital part of the Roman culture. "'The universal acceptance of bathing as a central event in daily life belongs to the Roman world and it is hardly an exaggeration to say that at the height of the empire, the baths embodied the ideal Roman way of urban life. Apart from their normal hygienic functions, they provided facilities for sports and recreation. Their public nature created the proper environment—much like a club or community center—for social intercourse varying from neighborhood gossip to business discussions. There was even a cultural and intellectual side to the baths since the truly grand establishmentsincorporated libraries, lecture halls, and promenades and assumed a character like the Greek gymnasium.'"

The Roman Baths

"Many Romans visit the Thermae or the public baths, as we know them. They went to the baths for entertainment, healing in the case of some baths, or just to get clean. There were 170 baths in Rome during the reign of Augustus and by 300 A.D that number had increasd to over 900 baths.  The baths were huge buildings built at public expense or by rich emperors who wished to impress their subjects. Sometimes rich Romans who were trying to gain popularity paid entry for a whole day for anyone wishing to visit the baths. Most of the Roman baths were free but those baths that had a nominal fee had the fee to keep out the slaves and the poor who could not afford it.There were many famous baths these included the Baths at Caracella, the Baths of Diocletian."

Roman Baths and Pump Rooms - The Pictures
Secrets of the Ancient World - The Roman Baths - Great site from Nova.

History of Ancient Roman Baths

"It is early afternoon in 80 A.D. Clients have visited patrons, the curia has adjourned and every man in Rome has but one thought...to the baths! Why were the baths so much a part of daily life? Why did the wealthy frequent public or privately owned baths when they had their own in their homes?

MORALS AND VIRTUES

Legal Opinions on Prostitution

The Roman Concept of Fides

"FIDES meant 'reliablilty,' a sense of trust between two parties if a relationship between them was to exist. FIDES was always reciprocal and mutual, and implied both privileges and responsibilities on both sides. In both public and private life the violation of FIDES was considered a serious matter, with both legal and religious consequences."

Stoicism

 "Stoicism was one of the most important/influential traditions in the philosophy of the Hellenistic world. It claimed the adherence of a large portion of the educated persons in the Graeco-Roman world. It had considerable influence on the development of early Christianity. The Roman Stoics, Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius were widely read and absorbed by the Western cultural tradition. Indeed, the very word 'stoic' has become synonymous with 'philosophical' and has come to represent that courage and calmness in the face of adverse and trying circumstances which was the hallmark of the ancient Stoics."

The Roman Virtues

These are the qualities of life to which every Citizen (and, ideally, everyone else) should aspire. They are the heart of the Via Romana — the Roman Way — and are thought to be those qualities which gave the Roman Republic the moral strength to conquer and civilize the world.

Non-Standard Roman Male Sexuality

Standard Roman Male Sexuality

Virtus:  "Virtue, Manliness, Strength in the Face of Adversity

Rome at its beginning was primarily and agricultural and martial culture. As a result, the earliest Romans stressed simplicity, strength, and toughness, which are all requirements of both the agricultural and martial lifestyles. What is anomalous about Roman society is that, even after Rome became not only urbanized, but downright cosmopolitan, Romans still looked back to their agricultural beginnings as defining the essential character of Romanness.

CLOTHING AND COSTUMES

Ancient Roman Costume

Glossary of Roman Clothing

From Diotima. Don't know that Ianthinus is violet or galbinus is yellow-green? Great summary of clothing names.

MEALTIME, FOOD AND DRINK!

Age, Gender and Status Divisions at Mealtime in the Roman House

Did you know that children of wealthy Romans drank mostly water? that infants received "premasticated" food after their weaning? that men could cook? Fascinating sociological research.

Ancient Roman Dishes

Roman cookbook translates the ingredients, measures, directions and many of the recipes sound yummy. Try a roman hamburger, water and honey melons, souffle of small fishes, chicken with liquid (wine) filling, fried veal, rolls, shrimp.

The Cooking Museum

"There are the pots, pans and utensils that have survived from Roman times and these give us a good idea of what a well equipped Roman kitchen might have looked like. We also know about the kinds of food that Romans ate because recipes were recorded by Roman writers.Hosts spent fortunes on their guests -- serving fish (sometimes guests were given the pleasure of watching the fish die slowly in a glass jar set before them), roe deer, suckling pig, partridges, flamingoes, and parrots."

An Ode to Olives

Roman Cuisine - And Food Preservation, Processing

Roman Orgy Page - Food

"Everything you ever wanted to know about Roman cooking for an orgy." Recipes.

A Taste of the Ancient Roman World - "Exhibit about Greco-Roman eating and drinking, farming and starving."

Three Great Roman Menus and Their Recipes

Villa Vlill - A Roman banquet with marvelous recipes.

What did the Romans Eat - An Article On Eating!

"Whilst it is true that some Romans did eat dormice, larks tongues and other extreme exotic foodstuffs, to concentrate on this aspect is to judge our own time by the consumption of alligator carpaccio, Kangaroo brochettes and ostrich steaks with brandy and green peppercorns. These things are eaten but in minuscule quantities in comparison to the food that makes up the diet of the ordinary person."  

THE GREAT MYSTERY STORIES OF ROME -
That Tell So Much About History and Life

The Detective and the Toga

Extensive, mammoth Bibliography of mystery novels and short stories set in Ancient Rome.  Books in a range of languages. The Full Site.

The Steven Saylor Series

The Web Site of Steven Saylor:  Anything You Wanted to Know About Saylor

Roma Sub Rosa:  The Investigations of Gordianus the Finder

"The novels of the ROMA SUB ROSA provide a panoramic fictional account of Rome in the last years of the dying Republic. Surrounded by towering figures like Cicero, Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Marc Antony, Gordianus the Finder and his family encounter murder, mayhem, and mystery."  Summaries of the novels and the Saylor short stories.  Works in progress.

Steven Saylor's Rome

"Steven Saylor's historical mysteries are set against the backdrop of the final years of the ancient Roman Republic - the heyday of Julius Caesar, Cicero, and Mark Antony. His seventh installment, Rubicon, witnesses Rome on the brink of civil war, as Caesar marches toward the capital. In this essay written for Amazon.com, Saylor offers fresh insight into his Roman world."   He writes of that Rome:
"Rome has never been richer or stronger. No other power on earth can rival her. The poor have their grain dole and the rich luxuriate in wealth never before imagined. Yet a great uneasiness hangs over Rome. For all its power and glory, the Republic is on the verge of violent collapse. Rome is ruled by a senate of rich elites... but not for much longer. The constitution is in crisis. The courts have turned into political battlegrounds where rival politicians routinely prosecute each other on real and trumped-up charges. Explosive trials generate scandal upon scandal. Election campaigns have devolved into mudslinging contests, with no accusation too appalling. Mere embezzlement or abuse of power no longer shocks. Politicians accuse each other of assault, rape, even murder."

The Lindsay Davis Series

One of my favorite mystery series.  Excellent history, great characters.  I have read them all.

The Author's Page

List of the books, plots, scenarios.  Click to her article to see what started her writing historical novels.

The Marcus Didius Falco Mystery Series:  Nice Vignettes of the Novels

The Official Website of Linsay Davis

Details, plots of all her books.  Readers Companion.  Book exerpts.  Biography of the main character, Falco. Great map of the novels.

THE MEN OF THE REPUBLIC WHO SHAPED IT AND "RAN" IT

Marius and the End of the Republic

The Importance of Marius

"The career of C. Marius illustrates a number of the trends that would lead to the fall of the Republic. He was a novus homo (man without senatorial forebears) from the Italian countryside who came to prominence in Rome through military competence, and whom the oligarchy had a hard time assimilating into the "system." He was given unprecedented power at Rome to deal with a military emergency, which could only be solved through bending the accepted constitution. Finally, he instituted a military reform that ended the raising of troops only from those who owned land. In the long run this reform was to change entirely the relationship of the troops to the state." Full, rich article on career and impact of Marius.

The Life of Caius Marius

"Caius Marius was a formidable and ambitious equestrian from Cirrhaeaton near Arpinum,one of the first 'warlords,' or faction leaders that would characterize the end of the Roman Republic. . .Marius had been the first in a long line of faction leaders, but he had also been, if not an innovator, at least a synthesizer of much-needed military reforms that also drew on the changing social aspects of Roman society. He will be remembered for his courage, his military acumen and his tenacity, and unfortunately, for the massacres that marred the end of his career."

Marius and Sulla

The Secrets of Political Success for a Roman Politician in the Republic [Site Down]

"The essential ingredient for an aspirant politician, whatever his family background, was wealth: the Roman elite was a moneyed elite. Constant outlay was important in public life: a politician had to spend freely on his clients, on his household, on slaves (particularly gladiators, for personal protection) and on investment. The expenses for elections were also astronomical.  Candidates had to provide themselves with a magnificent retinue and . . ."

LUCIUS CORNELIUS SULLA

"A famous Roman general stood poised to take the unprecedented step of marching on Rome with his legions, to purge the Senate of his political enemies and to ensure the downfall of a rival general, once more famous, now vying for command of the Roman armies. Of an old but decayed patrician family, he was famous for his conquest of foreign kings and his unrivaled luck in battle. He was ruthless, brilliant, alternately merciful and pitiless to his enemies. The younger general’s actions sent shock-waves to the very foundations of the enfeebled Republic and led to his seizing the dictatorship of Rome; however, he would not step aside from the office in the traditional six months, but proceeded to force through legislation to recreate Rome in his own image. His name would become a byword for those who helped destroy the Roman Republic in its final years."

THE CALAMITIES THAT FACED IT

Eye Witness to the Eruption of A.D. 79!

"At the time of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D. 79 the Roman fleet under the command of Pliny the Elder was stationed across the Bay of Naples at Misenum. Pliny launched ships and sailed toward the erupting volcano for closer observation and to attempt a rescue. No rescue was possible and Pliny himself died during the eruption, not in the streets of Pompeii, but across the bay at Stabiae.  Pliny's nephew, whom we know as Pliny the Younger, was with him at Misenum, but did not venture out on the ships with his uncle. He stayed back at Misenum and observed the events from there. He also received first-hand reports from those who had been with his uncle at his death. Based on this information Pliny the Younger wrote two letters to the historian Tacitus that recount the events surrounding the eruption of Vesuvius and the death of Pliny the Elder. The letters survive and provide a vivid account of the events."

Pompeii - All the Pictures and Identification Anyone Would Want

Pompeii Uncovered

"..they heard the crash of falling roofs; an instant more and the mountain-cloud seemed to roll towards them, dark and rapid, like a torrent; at the same time, it cast forth from its bosom a shower of ashes mixed with vast fragments of burning stone! Over the crushing vines- over the desolate streets- over the amphitheatre itself- far and wide- with many a mighty splash in the agitated sea- fell that awful shower."  Tour, history, photos, which capture the scene.

Pompeii Forum Project

Pompeii:  The City That Time Has Not Forgotten

Clic on the entry map.  Excellent pictures.  Then Pompeii:  Unraveling Ancient Mysteries

"On August 23, 79 AD, Pompeii looked like any other busy, prosperous city. People were moving about, trading goods, news, and friendly talk. . . . .

What Happened at Pompeii? - Summary of the National Geographic Study.

THE MEDICINE THAT PROLONGED IT

Antiqua Medicina: Gynecology

"In ancient Greek society, male dominance extended even to childbirth." Covers birth control, caesarean section, hysteria and the wandering womb.

Antiqua Medicina: Women In Medicine

Women's struggle to control their own bodies "a volatile issue in antiquity."

Hypertexts on this Site

Writings of Hippocrates and Galen and Here. "It is difficult to overstate the importance of Galen for European medical thought in the centuries between the fall of Rome and modern times. Even as late as 1833, the index to Karl-Gottlob Kühn's edition (still the only nearly complete collection of Galen's Greek works) could be designed for working medical practitioners as well as for classical scholars. Galen absorbed into his work nearly all preceding medical thought and shaped the categories within which his successors thought about not only the history of medicine, but its practice as well."

The Surgery of Ancient Rome:  A Display of Surgical Instruments from Antiquity

From the University of Virginia.  Incredible.

Series of First Rate Articles

Childbirth and Midwifery in Ancient Rome

Contraception and Abortion in the Ancient World

The Doctor in Roman Society

Etruscan and Roman Medicine

Opthalmolgy in Ancient Rome

"Physicians in classical times devoted great attention to eye diseases, from both a surgical and clinical point of view.   Instruments consistent in size and shape with use in ophthalmology are frequently mentioned in the inventory of Roman surgical implements found in archaeological escavations.   Moreover, ancient Roman writings, imply that such knowledge and practices were much older, restilying that eye physicians were numerous, specially in the northern regions of the Empire.   These physicians were really specialized in the treatment of eye diseases and were capable of performing at least 24 different kinds of treatment." See how they treated cataracts!

THE TECHNOLOGY FOR WHICH IT WAS FAMOUS

Ancient Roman Technology

Remarkable, creative, informative electronic handbook of ancient Roman technology.
What's needed in a world that can vary from the desert to the mountains to Britain with its foggy winters? For survival, we'll need food, shelter, and clothing.  Like Roman Hog Farming Site. Making Bread: Raising wheat, common grains, mill, kneading, ovens, baking. And Food Preservation in the Roman Empire.
How do you make things you use every day?  Roman Arts and Crafts.
 Wood, ceramics, copper, glass, metals.  Tools in the Empire.  Artificial Light in Ancient Rome.
Roman Pottery Decorations: Glazes, Glosses, and Slips.  "Pottery, especially Roman pottery, holds an important position in the world's history as it often serves as the main realistic and indicatory medium for our understanding of ancient societies and chronology."

Lost-Wax-Bronze-Casting in the Classical World. "Ancient foundries and how the Romans made large bronze statues."
Goldworking and Gemstones of the Ancient World: "The art of jewelry-making flourished. The existence of goldsmiths and silversmiths was well documented."
Roman Leather, Ancient Bookmaking.  Roman Shoes:  "If the Romans were such sophisticates for their time - then it makes sense that their footwear was just as important an aspect of their culture and lives as it is for us, the sophisticated inhabitants of  modern times. Sometimes, after all, it is most revealing to examine something from the bottom up."
And this is JUST THE BEGINNING.  Mines and Iron, quarries and stoneworking.
How do you move things in a world without motors? Transport (roads and bridges, ships and barges, ports and harbors).

How do you make things that are too big to move (buildings, bridges, etc.)? Construction and civil engineering, towns and cities (spatial organization, health facilities).

Historical Background on Roman Roads

"Roman roads made Greek roads look like footpaths. Constructed with great skill, the Roman roads were strong enough to support metal-wheeled wagons weighing over half a ton. Many of the roads were wide enough to accommodate two chariots riding side by side. Although built by Roman soldiers, along with plenty of muscle provided by slaves, the Roman roads depended on the indispensable surveying skills of Roman engineers. . . . The Romans built about 50,000 miles of paved roads throughout their empire, in comparison to the United States which has built about 52,000 miles of interstate highways."

The Construction, Makeup of Ancient Roman Roads

"A little planning goes a long way, a Roman road from the bottom up, a ditch for every occasion, a road is not a piece of cake."

The History of Plumbing - Pompeii & Herculaneum

"Water closets were in vogue in Pompeii, and archaeologists have found ancient closets in the back of one palace, including a cistern to flush water to the different seats. Near the palace kitchen they also found an arched recess approximately 3 feet deep. Although the actual wood had long disappeared,  archaeologists say they could still see outlines of hinges for the privy seats. The kitchen's brick oven sat four feet from the privy. To the efficient Romans who had no inkling of germs, the proximity allowed the easy disposal of both scraps and excreta. The women used the privy alongside the kitchen; the men went around to the back and used their own."  Great essay.

History of Plumbing - Roman and English Legacy

Anyone who has looked at Roman ruins in Britain and elsewhere, has been stunned by the expertise and advancement. And wondered how they did it. Excellent article explains in detail.

Question of the Day

How did public fountains, like those in Rome, work without any type of motor to pump the water?   Then go to Patrons, Ego, and the Fountains of Rome - a great article."In the earliest days of Rome there were more pressing concerns other than the building of grandiose fountains. The first priority was getting enough water for hygiene and drinking."  And finally, The History of Roman Plumbing.  "The Roman Empire eventually encompassed all the countries along the Mediterranean Sea, Mesopotamia, the Balkans, and most of modern Europe, including Britain. With their plumbing engineers in tow, the Romans left in their wake large - and small - scale water systems that incorporated similar-style aqueducts, lead pipes, heated floors, dams and drains. From Rome's Cloaca Maxima, largest of the ancient sewers, to the famous spas of Aquae Sulis in Bath, England, and the colossal baths of Emperors Caracalla and Diocletian, the early Roman plumbers left indelible marks on civilization."

Museum of Ancient Inventions - Visit the excellent Smith College Museum.

THE BUILDINGS AND ENGINEERING FEATS WHICH OUTLASTED IT

The Building of the World City - Rome

Aquaducts of Rome - Detailed and Important Paper

Roman Aquaducts - History and Details

And Here.  "During the early days of Rome the water supply came from the River Tiber, wells, and springs. It was no wonder that Father Tiber was an important deity to the Romans. The Tiber, however, is a very muddy river and also received all the refuse from the Cloaca Maxima, the sewer which flowed under the Forum Roman. By the late 4th century, when the Romans were engaged in the second Samnite War, they urgently needed an alternate water supply. Not only was the water supply no longer reliable for the growing Roman population, it was also possible that enemies of Rome could poison the supply. As these needs began to present themselves, the Romans saw the urgency of an alternate water source."

The Aquaducts of the City, the Republic, The Empire

Throughout the Roman Empire. Background, history, construction.

The Arch:  Glory of the Architecture of Rome

"In Rome, the archaeological remains of the republican and imperial periods are numerous . . what now exists testifies how the succession of different civilisations on the same site for more than two millennia, caused the looting and to the destruction of considerable parts of this patrimony"  And "the expansion of the Roman empire supported by engineering and architectural works whose enormous functional and cultural value helped to create cohesion among the involved people."  

Hadrian's Wall - A World Heritage Site

"The ruins of Hadrian's Wall form the most spectacular Roman remains in Britain. The mighty wall ran across the whole width of Britain, from Wallsend (Newcastle-upon-Tyne) in the east to Bowness-on-Solway in the west.. The wall was originally 15 feet high with 6 foot battlements on top of that. It was begun in about 120 A.D. on the orders of the Emperor Hadrian, and was manned until it was abandoned in 383." And Here.

Hechingen-Stein Roman Open-Air Museum

Roman villa in German tour dating from the end of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd Century AD.

History of Ancient Roman Baths

" It is early afternoon in 80 A.D. Clients have visited patrons, the curia has adjourned and every man in Rome has but one thought...to the baths! Why were the baths so much a part of daily life? Why did the wealthy frequent public or privately owned baths when they had their own in their homes? Why this need for cleansing daily?"  Answers! and a visit to a bath.

Roman Archaeology - Far Reaching Site

The Pantheon and the Triumph of Roman Concrete

Anything you wanted to know about how the Pantheon was built and its history. "The concrete dome of the Pantheon spans some 143 feet without the aid of metal reinforcement like modern buildings. The building even has unusual cracks and yet it still stands. The great painter Michelangelo offered one explanation: it is 'angelic, and not of human design. 'Certainly most if not all of our modern buildings would not meet the harsh weathering of 1800 years that the Pantheon has endured and survive."  Site Purpose:  "to answer many of the fundamental questions regarding the longevity of this beautiful structure and shows how modern concrete construction is just now learning to apply some of the same technologies used by the Romans. " Questions about their technology, labor force, tools, lifting devices.  And his site explains so much about the remarkable talents of the Romans.

THE ARTS WHICH ENHANCED IT

Roman Music - [Site Down But Info Still Important]

"Until recently (the 1930s), it was believed that Roman music was impoverished, and that their musical culture was little more than a synthesis of forms, styles and instrumentation stolen from their empire. New theories, scientific methodology, and interpretations, supported by better analysis and the whole body of archaeological discovery have enabled the development of a very different view in which Roman life was pervaded by music in all aspects. Evidence shows  that music was central to Roman religious ceremony, civic activity, entertainment, the military and the culture of work as early as the era of the Kings. Roman music was definitely formed by many foreign influences."

"There is a view that Roman music should be more appropriately called Graeco-Roman music. This is too simple. Roman social, political and cultural institutions were initially influenced by the ancient and mysterious Etruscans. The subsequent influence of the Greeks although early and sophisticated was one among many, in the thousand year of Roman history. Later, as an imperial power, Rome absorbed, extended and modified music along with many other cultural forms from the various territories it conquered.. . . Some Emperors not satisfied merely to use the arts as an instrument of policy, also performed. The known performers were: Caligula, Nero, Hadrian, Commodus, Elagalabus and Severus Alexander. Only one of these has a surviving review. The Emperor Nero invented a new sport for the Olympic games, singing. He entered and naturally won the laurel wreath of victory."

Roman Musical Instruments

"Music filled the lives of the Romans -- from private nightly dining to festive public celebrations, from serious musical performances to military parades, and from solemn to wildly erotic religious rituals. Here are their instruments, sans muzique, except for what your imagination might provide."

Rome Project: Drama Resources

In full text, the plays of Aeschylus, Aristophanes, Euripides, Sophocles.

Roman Theatre and Drama

Roman theatre derived from religious festivals. The Romans' carnival-like festivals included acting, flute playing, dancing, and prizefighting. Almost all festivals used music, dance, and masks in their ceremonies.  And what was a Roman play like?  HERE.

Roman City (30BC-641AD)

From Cleopatra to the Persian capture of Alexandria.

Virtual Tour of Rome

THE SCHOLARS WHO ENRICHED IT

Decline of Library of Alexandria

Brilliant article by Ellen Brundige tracing origin, Alexandria in the time of Caesar, Imperial Alexandria, the history of the city its decline and the rise of Christianity. And always the Libraries and their greatness and their loss.

The Alexandria Library - Myth, Legend, Reality

A Brief History of Roman Libraries

"Augustus, conscious that "a man is remembered by his works", created in Rome two great libraries with corresponding sections of Latin and Greek: one on the Campus Martius, the Portico of Octavia, in the year 33 b.C. It was one of the architectually most beautiful buildings of Rome, locked by one double colonnade, in the interior of which there were two temples, one dedicated to Jupiter and another one to Juno. The other, founded in the year 28 b.C., was on the Palatine, next to the temple of Apollo, and was constructed, like the temple, to commemorate the battle of Actium. It contained on a great porch, pictures of famous writers and a colossal statue of Apollo."

"Roman libraries were not important to education, being generally small collections, and because the demand of public reading was limited, since the Romans preferred to work in their private libraries or those of their friends. Private libraries became widespread thoughout the empire in the 1st Century AD. . . . The disintegration of the Roman Empire also brought about the collapse of the old traditional social order, and the light of the world that represented Rome first languished and finally it was extinguished for always.   The cities were left, and the libraries that conserved were set ablaze, destroyed or simply left to ruin. Many of the works that filled the libraries disappeared for always, and only few books, by different ways, was preserved until today."

Homer and Virgil: OnLine in Entirety

Read the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey, and the "Aeneid." Don't go to sleep without a chapter or two each night.

Rome Project: Philosophical Resources:  Plato, Aristotle.

THE SLAVES WHO SERVICED IT

Ancient Roman Slavery

"Slavery in the Roman Empire did not suddenly end, but it was slowly replaced when new economic forces introduced other forms of cheap labor. During the late empire, Roman farmers and traders were reluctant to pay large amounts of money for slaves because they did not wish to invest in a declining economy. The legal status of "slave" continued for centuries, but slaves were gradually replaced by wage laborers in the towns and by land-bound peasants (later called serfs) in the countryside."

Roman Civilization and Slavery

Excellent range of facts.

The Roman Slave Trade

" The Roman economy was built on a foundation of slavery, which was taken for granted as a normal feature of society. Even the early bishoprics and monastic houses kept slaves, despite the radical ideas of Christianity which emphasised equality. Most slaves fell into their unfortunate position after being captured in battle or condemned for a criminal offence. Julius Caesar brought back a million people from Gaul."

Selections from Roman Slave Laws

Very interesting collection. And HERE.

Slavery and Christianity

How numerous the slaves were in Roman society when Christianity made its appearance, how hard was their lot, and how the competition of slave labour crushed free labour is notorious. It is the scope of this article to show what Christianity has done for slaves and against slavery, first in the Roman world, next in that society which was the result of the barbarian invasions, and lastly in the modern world."

Slave-Mistress Relationships in Roman Society

Judith Evans-Grubbs' exhaustive article, "'Marriage More Shameful Than Adultery'": Slave-Mistress Relationships, "Mixed Marriages," and Late Roman Law.

Slavery at the Time of the Roman Empire

Cost, work, earning freedom.

Slavery in the Roman Empire: Numbers and Origins

John Madden's article on slavery, exposure, children.

Slavery in the Roman Empire - Ancient Sourcebook

The Conduct and Treatment of Slaves. How to Manage Farm Slaves, et. al.  Writings of the time.

The Story of Slave Revolts in the Roman Empire

"The view that ancient Rome was an enlightened and gentile society can certainly be tested on many grounds, but the matter of slavery is often overlooked. The prevalency of slavery in ancient Rome perhaps convinces us that it was not a brutal institution on the terms of slavery as we know of it in nineteenth century America; this is far from the truth. How were slaves treated by their Roman masters? And how did the historically-voiceless slaves react?"

THE SOLDIERS WHO PROTECTED AND EXTENDED IT
AND WAR IN THE REPUBLIC AND EMPIRE

Ancient Roman Artillery:  Detailed Analysis

Armamentarivm:  The Virtual Book of Roman Arms and Armor

Excellent brief survey by Museum of Antiquities.

Barbarization in the Late Roman Army

ORB Online Essay by Hugh Elton. Soldiers whose origins are outside the Roman Empire. Thesis of some say this condition cased army to decline.

Catapults in Greek and Roman Antiquity - Great Stuff!

Imperial Battle Descriptions

ABCD Encyclopedia of every battle the author could think of.  Including maps and essays.  Outstanding.

Roman Army: Bibliography

Exhaustive resource of texts, books, articles on every aspect of the Roman army.

The Roman Army

The Roman army of the empire. The Roman army pages. Roman army sites. Roman army bibliographies. Roman reenactment. Roman citizenship.  Extensive.

Roman Army in the Late Republic and Early Empire

The legions, camps, standards, uniforms, models, the works!

Livy: The Roman Way of Declaring War, c. 650 BCE

Among the very old formulas and usages that survived at Rome down to relatively late times, this method of declaring war holds a notable place. It was highly needful to observe all the necessary formalities in beginning hostilities, otherwise the angry gods would turn their favor to the enemy.

The Collapse of the Roman Empire--Military Aspects

"It is difficult to reach a conclusive verdict on why the western Roman empire fell. As these arguments show, it was a long and complex process, made more difficult to understand by the patchy nature of our evidence. If there was a simple answer, the Romans would surely have found it. Whatever the reasons, throughout the fifth century, when emperors could find money and assemble troops, the Roman army was a powerful and effective force. The institution itself was not at fault, but the support it received from its commanders-in-chief, the Emperors, was often lacking. If there was a single reason for the collapse of the western Empire, it was poor leadership, not military failure."

"Barbarization" in the Late Roman Army

"The term 'barbarization' is used to describe the use of soldiers whose origins were outside the Roman Empire in the late Roman army. It has been argued that this caused the army to decline in efficiency, though this is a view that is coming under some revision. There were two types of this 'barbarization.' The first type was the recruiting of individual 'barbarians.' Many of the army's recruits did come from beyond the empire, from Frankish, Alamannic or Gothic tribes in Europe, from Persia or Armenia in the east. None of our evidence suggests that this affected the battlefield effectiveness of the army. In number, they may have made up as many as a third of the empire's troops. The second type of barbarization was the short-term use of tribal groups of barbarian allies. These supplemented Roman forces, for the most part in civil wars. . . . But the continued presence of these contingents meant that within a generation the Romans saw them as allies, not as enemies. As allies, it was difficult to destroy them, but their increasing occupation of Roman territory eroded the Roman tax base. This in turn reduced the capacity of the western empire to defend itself, though these problems were not present to such a severe extent in the east."

Why Did Caesar Win the War Against Pompei?

"From the outset, the war between Caesar and Pompey looked like a one-sided affair. The situation was clearly in favour of Pompey. Gnaeus Pompey was the current 'tool' used by the Optimates in the Senate to counteract the threat that Caesar posed to their rule. The mass political backing of Pompey by the Senate was therefore in conjunction with control of all provinces of the Empire except those under the influence of Caesar. When Caesar crossed the Rubicon, he only controlled Gaul and the Po Valley in Italy. Pompey, in contrast, held the provinces of the East, Spain and Africa and most of Italy. Pompey also controlled the vast resources of men and grain in these parts. However, Caesar was able to use weaknesses in Pompey's strategic planning to ultimately change the tide of battle in his favour."

"The first question that has to be asked is why did Caesar win the civil war with Pompei? Most basically, he was the better general of the two. His army was better and faster, allowing him always to be on the offensive, and allowing him in turn to always provide his (retiring) soldiers with the material bases for survival. In the post-Marius era, a general's ability to support his current and retired soldiers was paramount in determining his own survivability. As well, Caesar demonstrated repeatedly his ability to provide clemency to erstwhile opponents, and was thus able to a gather more supporters to his banners. Therefore, through growing army power, increasing finances, and patronage, Caesar ascended to the rank of the most powerful Roman warlord and obtained powerful supporters, made up of a coalition of some senators, growing numbers of mounted and wealthy equities from provincial Italian municipalities, as well as foot-soldiers and elites fro regions where his own reputation was based, such as Gaul. All the while, he could count on the support of centurions and veterans. While they made him great, he looked after them, and al these groups came together into the factio--Caesar's faction. Caesar was also unusual, in that he combined being a good general with great political and legislative skills, as well as excellent rhetorical capabilities."

THE EARLY AND PUNIC WARS

The Great Battles of the Roman Republic

Excellent summaries of Cannae, Zama, Cynoscephalae, Pharsalus, Actium

Hannibal - A Short Bio

History of Ancient Carthage - Commentary and Photos

And another brief history here.

Colonial Punic Wars and Hannibal

" From the middle of the 3rd century to the middle of the 2nd century BC, Carthage was engaged in a series of wars with Rome. These wars, known as the Punic Wars, ended in the complete defeat of Carthage by Rome. The most prominent figure of the Punic wars was General Hannibal of Pheonician Carthage."  A history of the wars and a biography of the Great Hannibal.

Carthage and Rome:  The Punic Wars

Excellent summary from Reed College.  Sicily and the Carthaginian control over the Straits, Carthage government, its navy.  " The navy, for which the Carthaginians (as befits Phoenicians) were famous, depended upon tribute. In antiquity naval warfare was high-tech warfare; a navy was relatively expensive compared to a land force, in which combatants would ordinarily supply their own weapons. Culturally, a fuller picture of Carthage is only gradually beginning to emerge from excavations. Although there must have been Carthaginian histories, they all perished completely (a phenomenon perhaps connected with the Roman insistence upon stamping out every last vestige of Carthaginian life, in 146 BC). Of poetry and other literature we have nothing."  And "For all that Carthage was wealthy and well governed, the Greeks and Romans viewed them as bejeweled, perfumed, effeminate, sybaritic easterners. Nor has it helped their reputation to have it confirmed, by the excavations on the site of Carthage itself, that the Carthaginians routinely performed human sacrifice; not only do inscriptions mention it, but numerous urns containing the burnt bones of sacrificial victims (some animal, some human) have been found. In times of crisis the gods would get the choicest sacrificial victim of all: human babies."  The result of the 1st Punic War?  "The decisive battle came in 241 off the Aegate Islands (NW corner of Sicily), and the overwhelming Roman victory ended the war. The Carthaginians agreed, more than twenty years after Rome intervened on behalf of the Mamertines, to evacuate Sicily completely and to pay 3,200 Talents as a war indemnity."

The Fun Story of Hannibal and the Cattle

"After having fought that battle, Hannibal advanced upon Rome without resistance. He halted in the hills near the city. After he had remained in camp there for several days and was returning to Capua, the Roman dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus opposed himself to him in the Falernian region. But Hannibal, although caught in a defile, extricated himself by night without the loss of any of his men, and thus tricked Fabius, that most skillful of generals. For under cover of night the Carthaginian bound torches to the horns of cattle and set fire to them, then sent a great number of animals in that condition to wander about in all directions. The sudden appearance of such a sight caused so great a panic in the Roman army that no one ventured to go outside the entrenchments. Not so many days after this exploit, when Marcus Minucius Rufus, master of horse, had been given the same powers as the dictator, he craftily lured him into fighting, and utterly defeated the Romans. Although not present in person, he enticed Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, who had been twice consul into an ambuscade in Lucania and destroyed him. In a similar manner, at Venusia, he slew Marcus Claudius Marcellus, who was holding his fifth consulship." [From Cornelius Nepos: Hannibal - Chapter 5].

Hannibal Barca and the Punic Wars

"Welcome to the Most Comprehensive Web Resource  on the Life of Hannibal Barca and the Punic Wars Between Rome and Carthage."

Punic Wars:  1-3 Brief

The greatest naval power of the Mediterranean in the third century BC was the North African city of Carthage near modern day Tunis.  But, in the end, " Carthaginians who weren't killed were sold into slavery. The harbor and the city was demolished, and all the surrounding countryside was sown with salt in order to render it uninhabitable. "

Livy's Introduction - From History, Book 21

"Second Punic War."  "I consider myself at liberty to commence what is only a section of my history with a prefatory remark such as most writers have placed at the very beginning of their works, namely, that the war I am about to describe is the most memorable of any that have ever been waged, I mean the war which the Carthaginians, under Hannibal's leadership, waged with Rome. No states, no nations ever met in arms greater in strength or richer in resources; these Powers themselves had never before been in so high a state of efficiency or better prepared to stand the strain of a long war; they were no strangers to each other's tactics after their experience in the first Punic War; and so variable were the fortunes and so doubtful the issue of the war that those who were ultimately victorious were in the earlier stages brought nearest to ruin. And yet, great as was their strength, the hatred they felt towards each other was almost greater. The Romans were furious with indignation because the vanquished had dared to take the offensive against their conquerors; the Carthaginians bitterly resented what they regarded as the tyrannical and rapacious conduct of Rome. The prime author of the war was Hamilcar. There was a story widely current that when, after bringing the African War to a close, he was offering sacrifices before transporting his army to Spain, the boy Hannibal, nine years old, was coaxing his father to take him with him, and his father led him up to the altar and made him swear with his hand laid on the victim that as soon as he possibly could he would show himself the enemy of Rome. The loss of Sicily and Sardinia vexed the proud spirit of the man, for he felt that the cession of Sicily had been made hastily in a spirit of despair, and that Sardinia had been filched by the  Romans during the troubles in Africa, who, not content with seizing it, had imposed an indemnity as well.

Livy - Book 22 - The Roman Disaster of Cannae
Livy - Book 23 - Hannibal at Capua
Livy - Book 24 - The Revolution in Syracuse and Bk 25 - The Fall of Syracuse and Book 26 The Fate of Capua

Book 27 Scipio in Spain and Book 28 The Final Conquest of Spain

Book 29 Scipio in Africa and Book 30 Close of the Hannibalic War (This book is key) :"After 16 years of war. . ."

Scipio Africanus

"After avidly studying the tactics of Hannibal, Scipio Africanus eventually bested his Carthaginian adversary."  The man who defeated Hannibal did not fare so well for himself.  "Scipio's popularity soon came to be marred by controversial behavior. His love of Greek customs, literature and art soon brought him into direct conflict with the traditional Roman party, led by the Censor Marcus Porcius Cato. In 187 bc, his brother Lucius Scipio was accused of accepting bribes, to which Africanus responded by tearing up the incriminating documents before the tribunal. Later, Scipio Africanus himself was called to the Senate to answer corruption charges--a summons that he simply refused to obey. Retiring to his estate outside Rome at Liternum, Scipio spent his final years complaining of his countrymen's ingratitude, until his death in 184 bc."

Scipio Africanus Major - Roman general, Conqueror of Hannibal in the Punic Wars.

Punic Wars

Vignettes by Professor Knox of Boise State, covering all the aspecits of the wars.

Second Punic War:  A Great Interactive Map

The Punic Wars:   A Retelling of the Struggle between Rome and Carthage

Rome at the End of the Punic Wars

ROME, with the end of the third Punic war, 146 B. C., had completely conquered the last of the civilized world. One writer of the war is Polybius.

The Wars With Carthage and Macedon

"An Epic of Two Nations Fighting for Survival."

The Macedonian Wars - Livy

"I, too, feel as much relief in having reached the end of the Punic War as if I had taken a personal part in its toils and dangers. It ill befits one who has had the courage to promise a complete history of Rome to find the separate sections of such an extensive work fatiguing. But when I consider that the sixty-three years from the beginning of the First Punic War to the end of the Second take up as many books as the four hundred and eighty-seven years from the foundation of the City to the consulship of Appius Claudius under whom the First Punic War commenced, I see that I am like people who are tempted by the shallow water along the beach to wade out to sea; the further I progress, the greater the depth, as though it were a bottomless sea, into which I am carried. I imagined that as I completed one part after another the task before me would diminish; as it is, it almost becomes greater. The peace with Carthage was very soon followed by war with Macedonia. There is no comparison between them as regards the critical nature of the contest, or the personality of the commander or the fighting quality of the troops. But the Macedonian war was, if anything, more noteworthy owing to the brilliant reputation of the former kings, the ancient fame of the nation and the vast extent of its dominion when it held sway over a large part of Europe and a still larger part of Asia. and "Bk. 32.

THE BIG BIG EMPIRE!

Hunterian Museum: Romans in Scotland

Exhibition telling story of Roman presence in Scotland, emphasis on the Antonine Wall frontier and the life lived by the soldiers based in forts along its line. Covers the Wall, the Legionnaires, the army on campaign, building the forts, soldiers and their families, religion.

The Landings of Caesar in Britain, 55 and 54 BC  - From the "Athena Review"

Legio X Gemina Homepage

Dutch Roman military reconstruction and reenactment group. They reconstruct Roman military equipment and participate in displays around Europe. Experience this!

Late Roman Army

ORB Online Essay by Hugh Elton. Reforms, changes, impact.

THE ECONOMY AND LAWS THAT SUPPORTED IT

Roman Coins of the Early Empire

"Roman coins offer a unique view into ancient Roman life because they were used by almost everyone on a daily basis, from the emperor down to the Head Count. Coins tell us much about what was important to the Roman people, how they celebrated holidays and religious occasions, and how the emperors wanted to be viewed by their subjects."

Rome: Map of Trade Routes

Excellent view of the extent and variety of trade.

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Legal Opinions on Prostitution - From Justinian's Code

Legal Status in the Roman World

Interesting links to various Roman laws: including guardianship, pregnancy, adultery, life and death, prostitute, abuse.

The Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE

Roman Law Resources - All About Roman Law

Questions and Answers on Roman Law

THE MIGHTY EMPERORS OF POWERFUL ROME - A Collection of Humans and Not-So Human Fellows

Brilliant, stupid, brave, crazy and cowardly, enlightened, dazed, talented, crippled, insane.  But always powerful.  Who were they? What caused them to "be as they were?"  They each held an "impossible" job. To govern half of the then known world?  With hundreds of different peoples, languages, cultures, conditions, characteristics.  Most a comparative "thousands" of miles from the center.  A range of the conquered from passive to horrendously aggressive.  Yet, some emperors performed with unbelievable ability.  Others with almost unimaginable incompetence.  The Roman Empire cannot be understood without "knowing" the Emperors.  I have created a special page for your "emperor education!"  Please join us HERE.

THE WOMEN WHO BORE IT - And Their Weddings, Marriages, Families, Funerals, Lives

(Many important sources are offline in books, journals, articles)

BOUDICCA: A Mother's Revenge

For the Romans, rape "was a property crime against the husband or paterfamilias. The story of Lucretia (who stabbed herself rather than allow her name to go through posterity tainted) epitomizes the shame felt by Roman victims. Boudicca, one of history's most powerful women, suffered rape only vicariously -- as a mother, but her revenge detroyed thousands. Here is the story.  Then move to the description by Tacitus.

Images of Rape: The "Heroic" Tradition and its Alternatives

"'Rape of the Sabines, painted in the 1630s and today in the New York Metropolitan Museum, may well be the rape image most familiar to American art historians. It illustrates an episode from the early history of ancient Rome. The Romans, unable to obtain wives peacefully, staged a festival, invited the neighboring Sabines, and, at a signal from Romulus, each violently seized a Sabine woman. Art historians /p. 8: generally focus on Poussin's classical style or his sources in ancient art and literature. The painting is often termed "heroic" or cited as an embodiment of Poussin's belief that the highest goal of art is the depiction of noble human action. Avigdor Arikha, for example, finds the work "sublime...heroic...divine" and argues that "Poussin looked for nobility in his subject."  This terrible story and the art.

Cleopatra on the Big Screen

All the movies and TV films on Cleopatra.

Dying to Have a Baby - The History of Childbirth

"The classical Romans had considerable obstetric skill. Soranus (A.D. 98-138), wrote a textbook of obstetrics which was used until the sixteenth century. Soranus described podalic version, and the use of the obstetric chair, and gave detailed instructions on the care of the new- born-- boiled water and honey for the child for the first two days, then on to the mother's breast.   These skills largely disappeared during the Dark Ages; there is little record of obstetric practice after this until early modern times."  And the Caesarean. "The oldest reference to Caesarean section on the dead mother was in the Roman Law of Numa Pompilius. (715-673 BC). There is no doubt that this was sometimes successful, but there is no good documentation of section with survival of both mother and child."

An Old Picture of Child Birth

Take a look at this art.

Imperial Family Roles:  Propaganda and Policy in the Severan Period

Paper focusing on the role of the father in the family.  "There are three types of family that figure in the propaganda and policy of the Roman empire: the family of the emperor, the family of the imperial subject, and the metaphorical family that the emperor and subjects together constitute.  Emperors and public alike had ideals in mind for the various roles within these families; in this paper I will primarily be considering the role of the father in the three types of family."

Ancient Roman Marriage

Covers from the basis through the wedding ceremony.

The Roman Marriage

"The Roman institution of marriage has been lauded as being the first purely humanistic law of marriage, one that is based on the idea of marriage being a free and freely dissolvable union of two equal partners for life. (Schulz, 1951;103) This is quite a simplistic view, as there were many differing forms of marriage in Rome, from the arranged marriages of the elite to the unions of slaves and soldiers. As we shall see, the Romans' actual expectations of married life and the gains they envisioned they would receive from the experience depended greatly on their age, sex and social status.. . Were the Roman's expectations of marriage likely to be met? The foremost function of marriage, the production of children, was likely to be met by most marriages. Having those children survive and succeed you as heirs or to look after you in old age was another matter."

Weddings

Like a Greek woman, a Roman woman was usually under the guardianship, manus, of her paterfamilias, male guardian, her whole life. However, during the end of the Roman Republic and at the time of the elegiac poets, women tended to have more freedom."  Types of Marriage, Preparing for a Wedding, The Wedding Ceremony, Ideal Marriage.  Detailed informative essay.  " It is undeniable that the Romans, like the Greeks before them, demanded different standards of chastity from women and men. The preservation of virginity before marriage was essential. A few cautionary tales were handed down as a deterrent, but the offence was more effectively avoided by the practice of marrying girls off soon after they reached puberty and by the strict upbringing of the daughters of the upper classes."

Midwives and Maternity Care in the Roman World

Fine article by Valerie French with its detailed discussion of midwives and maternity care, and its examination of the gap between "professional" care (the midwifes and doctors) and folk medicine.

Slave-Mistress Relationships in Rome

"Roman society had never favored the idea of a free woman having a sexual relationship with a slave, and the insinuation that they consort with slaves or low-born males is a favorite slur of Roman satirists against  supposedly respectable women.[2] To the elder Seneca and his upper-class audience, even legitimate marriage between a freedman and his former master's daughter was abhorrent, for it threatened the proper hierarchy of male over female and brought disgrace upon the woman and her family. In the eyes of the educated male élite who made and interpreted the law, legitimate Roman marriage was a union between social equals, an alliance not only of two people but of their families, intended to produce children whose legitimacy and status were not in question and who could fittingly succeed to their parents' property and role in the social order."  Scholarly article examines the evidence for monogamous unions between free women and slave men in imperial Roman society, with particular attention to the relationship of a woman with her own slave or former slave. "

FEMINAE ROMANAE: The Women of Ancient Rome

"In all of Roman literature surviving the fall of its Empire, only six short poems from a woman named Sulpicia have come down to us that speak in a woman's authentic voice. Yet more has been learned of Roman women in the past thirty years than in centuries before. From the Empress to her freedwoman, the good wife to the prostitute, the midwife to the scholar, this site presents an introduction to the history of the women of ancient Rome." Historical context, heroines of Rome, Republican women, imperial women, women of influence, forgotten women.  Essential site.  

The Women of Rome:  Private Lives and Public Personae

Valuable article by Dr. Susan Martin, University of Tennessee.  Exploring "the enigmatic, complex world of Roman women: The ideals and cultural expectations placed on them, and, by contrast, the taboos and tensions they lived with as well as the system of rights and duties that mediated their lives in public and private."

Roman Elite Women

Brief but helpful excerpts from ancient writings.

Lady Livia's Alcove

Rich with details on Romen women's lives.  And also at Villa Ivilla.

The Erotic Art of Ancient Rome

Very good museum and the women in it.

Romanae Antiquae - An Informal Look at the Lives of the Women of Rome

Biographies, coins, adornment, empresses, family, medicine, religion.

Six Vestal Virgins

"The Vestal Virgins were venerated priestesses of Vesta (the Roman goddess of the hearth fire) and guardians of the luck of Rome who could intervene on behalf of those in trouble. . . Their term as priestesses of the goddess Vesta was thirty years, after which they were free to leave and marry. Most preferred to remain single after retirement. Before that, they had to maintain chastity or face a frightening death. Girls between the ages of six and ten, originally from patrician and later from any freeborn family were eligible to become Vestals provided they met certain criteria, including being free of bodily imperfection and having living parents. In exchange for a commitment of thirty years (ten in training, ten in service, and ten training others) and a vow of chastity, Vestals were emancipated and so, free to administer their own affairs without a guardian, given honor, the right to make a will, luxurious accommodations at state expense, and when they went out, fasces were carried before them. They wore distinctive dress and the hairstyle of a Roman bride."

Sodalis Familiaris

Roman Kids, School and Play, Celebrating holidays with Roman children, Raising children with Roman values, Boys becoming Men, Girls becoming Women.

Valeria Messalina

"One needs not be an historian to note that the very name 'Messalina' has become synonymous with all the faults, vices and machinations of womankind. While it is true that many of the lusty and criminal infamies that are attributed to Claudius' Empress are evidently fables, not all are. Though Tacitus and Suetonius have made us think the worst at the mention of her name, she was more than a schemer and a senseless wanton. Surely, she was a captivating, capricious, unscrupulous wife who never minded using the weaknesses of her husband for gain. She came by her lust for power quite naturally it seems.Messalina was beheaded by the guard at the order of her husband, thus ending her seven year reign of terror."

Women and Religion in Rome

Women's Life in Greece and Rome

From the work by Mary Lefkowitz.  10 important categories, particularly Legal Status in the Roman World, and Medicine and Anatomy.

THE BARBARIANS WHO THREATENED AND THEN CHANGED ROME

Ultimate Barbarian Page

Intent  -  "study and honor" the early Barbarians of Europe from the Iron Age. Pages devoted to the history, civilization, and culture of the Northern European Iron-Age barbarians. "Many of the negative stereotypes and "myths" surrounding these people are challenged."  Biographies.

THE "COLLAPSE" OF ROME

Collapse of the Roman Empire - Military Aspects: Online Essay by Hugh Elton

Fall of Rome's Empire:  Brief History

How Excessive Government Killed Ancient Rome

Covers free market policies, food subsidies, taxation, inflation, state socialism, reforms.  Outstanding article from The Cato Journal.

The "Best of" Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

"Some Excellent Bits from Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Gibbon's prose is superb, and obviously relevant to life and world events today." Excerpts.

Gibbon: General Observations

"The Fall of the Roman Empire is one of the most widely contested issues in ancient history. Almost every possible viewpoint has at one time or another been presented by scholars from all across the world. '"It has remained a vital question because each age has seen in the tale of Rome's fall, something significant and relevant to its own situation" '(Kagan). Site presents some of the most widely articulated theories regarding this historical dilemma": The Economic Collapse, The Military Decay,  A Gradual Transformation.

The Fall of Rome II

"Rome fell,