RICHNESS AND POVERTY, LANDLORDS AND PEASANTS

THE MAGNIFICENCE AND MISERY OF ETHNIC DIVERSITY

Albania, Kosovo, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Sarajevo, Croatia, Czech Republic, Old East/West Germany, Hungary, Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Yugoslavia.  Voyvodina, Moldavia, Montenegro. Armenia, Belarus, Chechnya, Estonia, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine.  Gypsies, Ustashi, Holocaust, Milosovic, Karadic, Ethnic Cleansing, Kings and Queens, Genocide, Revolution . . .

Eastern Europe? Central Europe? East Central Europe? Southwestern Europe? Southeastern Europe? The Balkans?  What name shall we use?  The "groupings" are illusive and changing - based on myth, tradition, dreams, treaties, geography, trade-offs, history, symbols, perceptions, prejudice, power politics, arrogance, ignorance, and HOPE.  The concepts of "Balkans" and "southern" bring erroneous or incomplete images of unique civil wars, hatred, barbarism, primitive, poor, irredeemable.  The concept of "central" brings the same erroneous or incomplete images of uniquely civilized, developed, "western" values.  Is it any wonder that the nations bordering the "western" and "civilized" nations such as Germany and Austria exert enormous effort to link themselves to them and distance themselves from "the other."  Is "it" a region?  What is "it."  The reader will need to make his/her own distinctions.  Whatever else, the "civilized" nations of the world in the 20th Century have treated this area with disdain, indifference, frustration, and reacted with ignorance, hubris, cruelty, and discrimination.

For 30 years, I have spent large chunks of time in this area, in all of the countries, making friends (and enemies), driving into every large city and small hamlet, listening - and caring.  I have spent considerable time being "interviewed" by the secret police of each nation that had them - because it was always assumed that I must be either Jewish or a CIA agent.  They could not seem to grasp that I was only an ordinary and intrigued human - perplexed by the beauty, cultures, complexity, talents, cruelty, myths, courage, suffering, strength, dreams, yearnings, of people, personalities, in an area of the world that had always been powerless and faced with  the kind of CHOICELESS CHOICES that few Americans could understand.  Small countries hemmed in on all sides by big bullies whose interests could always be imposed.  Threatened nations and regions and provinces surrounded by danger and enemies. Human beings, like us, who have the same needs for recognition, stability, a better future for their children, community, and food and clothing and shelter.

Each year I go, at least twice, particularly to Kosovo, Macedonia, Serbia, Albania, Slovenia, Romania and Hungary.  On 9/11, I was on the border between Macedonia and Kosovo.  As I continue to go to EE, I will add to and continue to revise the material for the following countries.

From April 1997 to October 2002, this Web Book was accessed 11,500,000 times.  I am no longer keeping track.
    Created Primarily for Netscape

None of the following may be reproduced in any manner.
Internet Book Copyright, K. Feig, last full upgrade, August 2001

Internet Book Index

Albania	Bulgaria	Croatia	Czech Republic	Germany
Hungary	Macedonia	Poland	Romania	Russia
Gypsies	Slovakia	Slovenia	Armenia   Belarus   Georgia	Latvia   Lithuania   Ukraine
EasternEurope Part II Bosnia, Yugoslavia, Holocaust	BOSNIA/HERZ.  Table of Contents	Kosovo     Table of  Contents	Yugoslavia  Table Contents	Vojvodina   Table of Contents
Holocaust  in EE   Table of Contents	ONLINE  COLLEGE   COURSES	H 4A:Modern Western Civiliz.  H4B:  Middle World of WCiviliz.	Ancient   World	Dedication Copyright

THE REGION

KEY:  To understanding Eastern Europe on a regular basis.  Folks, particulary students should read this site at least WEEKLY and go through for research.  Outstanding daily press releases, Radio Free Europe interviews of Eastern European leaders and their biographies and speeches, outstanding Special Reports and Special Analyses, quotes of the week.

ALERT: Central Europe Review

Formerly a central, critical source with ews that needed to be checked often. It covered so much that the American news including CNN didnot cover.  Now it is a fornightly Journal of Politics, Society and Culture. It is still imperative.  Reviews, features, interviews, opinion, and in-depth analysis of cultural and ethnic diversity from Central Europe to Central Asia. Many important E Books on European Affairs.  Its 1999 and 2000 archives are very helpful.  Remember, the focus and slant is Central Europe - not the "Balkans" or "Southern Europe."

ALERT:  European Internet Network.  

Click to every country and region.  You could spend the weekend here and end up knowing a great deal about every East European country.  Critical site. Premier collection of current news.

ALERT:  TOL - TRANSITIONS ONLINE

Leading Internet magazine covering Central and Eastern Europe, the Balkans, and the former Soviet Union. Czech nonprofit dedicated to strengthening independent journalism, TOL based in Prague and uses a network of local correspondents to provide unique, cross-regional analysis. Timely reporting, In-depth analysis, cross-border perspectives.  Only magazine to cover all of the region's 28 post-communist countries.  Free 2 month trial membership here.  Or One Year Student Membership is $12.

ALERT: The BBC

The real news.  And excellent articles.  Search for the country you wish to know about.

BBC World Service - Soooooooo important and soooooo good.  Can't leave home without it.  Click to EUand read the Talking Points.  "Enlarging Europe" - Click on it to the map of the old, new, and wannabe countries and then get quick facts on population and economy by clicking on each of the "red and yellow" countries.

Europe Today - Another excellent but slightly different BBC offering.

ALERT: Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Newsline:  Outstanding news, articles, perspective.

Weekday Magazine - Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia-Montenegro
Radio Free Europe - Latest News from the Balkans

ALERT:  VOICE OF AMERICA NEWS

Politics, Arts & Culture, Business, Health & Medicine, International, Science & Tech, Sports.

ALERT:  NJI -  NETWORK OF INDEPENDENT JOURNALISTS

ALERT:  Central Europe Online - For Global Professionals

Subscribe for $1.99 a month here. "Or $5.95 a month.  No other company aggregates the range of content that EIN does 365 days per year. It's focused. It's updated everyday. It's delivered to inboxes and on the web. It's human edited and filtered. It's moderated. All users are encouraged to sign up today! Benefits: EIN News Services Account -- only $5.95 per month! Unlimited access to all Country News Sections via e-mail and on the web. Choose from 254+ daily e-mail newsletters No risk, 100% 7 day money back guarantee.   Help Desk Assistance." and then the

ACTION:  Pick a country and and join the discussion on issues.  Talk, react.  Easy to do.

ALERT: Embassy - Country Watch

Superb, brief information on every country in world.  Year 2002.  Key data, history, culture, economy, agriculture, environment. Click here and you get current news, maps, sign-up-country-review in PDF.  Political History, government, offices, foreign affairs, defense, leader biographies.  Economic History, key data, macroeconomic, global rankings, trade, GDP, population, development, technology.  Investment overview, social-cultural overview, environmental overview, etc. To access some of it you must be a subscriber.  If the country is the one you are researching for the quarter or semester, it might be well to pay the $39 for full access or the $39 for the country forecast.

ALERT: Southeastern Europe - Excellent wide summary information.  One year old to November 2001. Focus on Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova. Then Click to Balkans Region.

Or Country Analyses for all of Europe.

ALERT:  Economic Reconstruction and Development for SouthEast Europe.  (European Commission and the World Bank).

 What's happening in all of Southern Europe.  Click on the map by country.

ALERT:  Lonely Planet

Actually for some (not all) of these nations in turmoil, Lonely Planet gives some of the clearest, tightest, and most up-to-date summaries on the range of subjects. Search by country.

Online Jim Lear News Hour

Check it periodically. Often deals with Eastern Europe. Go to Past Programs and find many articles and programs on Eastern Europe. Use also subject box, "Foreign Correspondence." Many articles, interviews. Click on Special Reports - then Europe.

Eastern European Studies at Institutions List

List of universities and think tanks with programs in East European Studies present on the Internet.

THE COUNTRIES OF EASTERN EUROPE

For all countries, excellent update sources are the Daily or Weekly On-Line Magazines and Newspapers. They integrate the present with the past.  PLEASE USE FOR EACH COUNTRY.  Also please remember that many of these countries are either very poor,  or in political turmoil and instability, or devasted environmentally, or without continuous water and electricity, or in "war," or all of the above.  Many talented computer folks have emigrated.  So important sites go down or disappear all the time.  Servers operate sporadically.  Be patient with them. Many of these nations want desperately to communicate.  If you find a chat, please talk to the folks.

VERY SPECIAL PLACES - some are dated for obvious reasons such as war, devastation and the like.

Albanian World Wide Web Home Page - A SPECIAL EFFORT

The Award Winning comprehensive gateway to the new Albanian pages on the WWW.  Contains much new information.  Covers not only the country of Albania, but Albanians - because "Albanians cover a far larger territory than the country.  DATED.  Site Folks No longer have money or time to upgrade.

Alexander Palace Time Machine: A SPECIAL PLACE

Alexander Palace, home of the last Tsar. Tour the Palace Parade Rooms, rooms of Nickolas II, rooms of Aleksandra, children's rooms, palace treasures, Faberge, the palace today, history of the characters in the story.

Bucknell Russian Studies: A SPECIAL PAGE

No better source on Russia, done so beautifully by students at Bucknell University.

Treasures of the Czars: A PREMIER WEB SITE

One of best sites on Web. Received accolades across Net. Major exhibition. All the history and culture you could wish for. Don't miss "Playground of the Czars."

  ALBANIA: The Surprise - On Again, Off Again

September 2001.  Well wasn't that interesting!  On September 9, I flew from Albania to Macedonia.  So much to say about current Albania.  I have been in the "High Lands," on the ocean, in the "City."  Impossible to describe right now.  On September 11, I was observing the gathering of weapons on the Macedonian/Kosovo border, and headquartered in Skjope.  Then it took 8 days to get back to America.  So involved now in those events, and the panels I must be on.  And need to go to Georgia and Azerbaijan.  No time to update Albania, but so much about it to ponder.

August 2001.  Off again to Albania, a country poorer than my last "visit" if that were possible.  I will be there in September 2001.
1999.  In September 1999, I could only shake my head.  Ten days ago on a fairly cold dark morning, 5 a.m., I was standing outside the Hyatt Hotel in Belgrade waiting for my Serbian "organizer" friend to pick me up in his "good" car with "good" gas for the tough drive to the "border" or field where I would walk across with my luggage to the KFOR tanks and meet my ride to Prishtina, Kosovo.  A major "learned" Italian reporter from a lead Rome newspaper who had spent much time in Belgrade walked out and joined me.  He was waiting for the van that would take him back to Budapest on his seven hour drive.  He asked me where I was going and I said, "Kosovo."  "Tsk, tsk," he reacted.  "I hope you do not think those Albanians are human, because you will get killed."  He added, "I have known many Albanians and been to Albania and they are all animals - lazy, dirty, ignorant, criminals.  The KLA are all drug lords, and the Albanians in the country of Albania just want to take over Kosovo and then Serbia."  I was really too tired to either argue or try to deal intelligently with that kind of stupidity.  

You see, I had heard it all before, in fact relentlessly in the time I had spent in Belgrade.  I heard it previously in the years before in every Eastern European country.  I heard it in Sarajevo right after the war as well as in Croatia.  Across Europe, from the mouths of officials, professors, reporters, "common" folks. The Albanians of Albania and whereever else they might abide, are surely the Gypsies and black people of Eastern Europe.  The stereotypes seem familiar in terms of stereotypes (not history) to me as I stand there in that brisk darkness to the words I heard coming out of Americans across the USA in the Sixties, Sevenites and even today.  My mind floated back to statements that African Americans are genetically dumb, can't learn, take drugs, are vicious, and on and on.  And I reminded myself that "smart" people, reporters, professional people in America said those things and sometimes still do.  I knew I could not say to this erudite Italian that some of my best friends are Albanian.  Or that I knew remarkable bright Albanians in Kosovo, Macedonia,  and Albania, or that ..... That response would have overwhelmed me with its triteness.  Is it not sad that all I wanted to do or could think to do was just beat the heck out of him!  What a limited, ignorant impuse of mine.  Yet it was all I had left in me as I was leaving Serbia.  

I wrote this following portion of the Albanian Essay in December 1997 and August 98.  I leave it up for contrast and to give pause and thought..  My "dated"  comments are in  brown.
1997-98.  Pundits wrote that Albania, the most isolated, controlled of all EE nations, would never succumb to the revolutionary fever spreading across Europe. Yet it did, and in face of the worst poverty of any of these nations, is making a valiant attempt to build an open society, or so I believe when I am there and see the EXTREME difference between life in the old days and now. In the next to last election, however, manipulation, violent police intimidation, fraud marred the process - with beatings and arrest of the opposition supporters in that old ruthless approach.

When I stand on the coast of Albania, I know it is one of the most beautiful countries in its natural form that I have ever seen. A writer in 1913 called it "a most singular country" or "a most marvelous country." Others have referred to it as the "Switzerland of the Balkans" or as the "rock garden of southeastern Europe." But its uncommon isolation from the world, arising generally from its rugged, mountainous terrain and its government has led foreigners to speak of it as "the Tibet of Europe" or as a country more mysterious than central Africa. And it is such a young nation - in terms of integration into the modern world. Look carefully at a map and note the countries and therefore the conditions which surround it. Like other eastern nations, its destiny is not its own alone to decide.  I think it clear that one major key to the future of Albania lies in the Kosovo situation - or so I have been saying for 5 years.  The Serbs will not leave Kosovo alone - and when the 90% of the population which are Albanian get too desperate as they are bound to do, the region will explode - unless international wisdom and courage pervails which seems unlikely. And no matter what, Kosovo will be independent ultimately, regardless of anything anyone says or does, regardless of any great event in 1300 BC on a nondescript field - unless of course, Serbia kills most or the Albanians in Kosovo.

Perhaps one should remember that Albania shrouded itself in complete isolation for many years. Actually, the renaissance and reformation passed it by during Turkish rule. During all wars, other nations have used it as a battleground. Until 1990, Hoxha for decades had banned religion, automobiles, foreign credits, and sealed tight the border. Clannish home-grown communism, atheistic, a prison. Hoxha wrote: "The Albanian people will eat grass rather than renounce their defense of Marxism-Leninism." By the time he died in 1985, the isolated, destitute humans, with a per capita country annual income under $900, were eating grass. The size of Maryland, Albania has the only "untouched" seacoast in the area. And it is, in a classical sense, the most beautiful and untouched of its neighbors in Eastern Europe. In Tirana, one can see several new hotels built by Europeans and Japanese sprouting up. Does Albania want any other country's land? Sure - in Greece and Serbia.

On October 24, 1997, Dr. Elez Biberaj, Chief of Albanian Services for the Voice of America, an Albanian native who earned his Political Science PhD at Columbia University, came to the Bay area to San Jose University for a small seminar.  In 1993, he had written, "The future of Albania looks bright but it will have to overcome substantial problems." When asked if he still believed his statement, he pointed to the bright side: 1) Despite his past record, the Albanians are willing to give President Nano a chance; 2) Nano "really enjoys the international support now" - but that comes with a tremendous price; 3) "the US is very supportive right now of Nano."  But, he added, "the situation is very dangerous.  If this government fails, it will be anarchy.  And that would bring into question the very existence of Albania as a country."  Greece might well move on the south and Italy on the North, for example.  He offered other observations. "Albania lacks a center." "Regional differences in every country exist, but ethnic differences are not at the core in Albania."

In the economic area, in the 20th Century, Albania has not been a viable nation, noted Dr. Berija.  Regional integration is all it has going for it.  Nano has no choice but to do what the IMF says Albania must do - with all of the attending negative public reaction. His conclusion when pressed:  "The future is bleak and interesting, but the Albanian people have seen worse."

The same afternoon, I listened to and questioned the brilliant Dr. Gramoz Pashko, Head Economic Advisor to the Albanian Government and the man who represents that nation to The IMF, the World Bank, etc.  A former professor of economics at the University of Tirana, he was also a deputy Prime Minister in the first post-communist government in Albania as well as a candidate for Prime Minister in 1996.  He had just flown in from Brussels.  He is more confident - because of the assistance now pledged by the IMF and surrounding nations such as Greece, Italy.  The Albanian government must meet the IMF conditions.  Albania just agreed to raise it value-added tax from 12% to 20% and to close the last two banks and to end all pyramid schemes.  These steps may be draconian, but, says Dr. Pashko, they are essential. He believes the country politically must come together - "because it must.  It no longer has the luxury of division and undermining in a political sense."  Its inflation rate is only about 48% and its unemployment rate is only about 20%.  It has resources and talent.  And it has support.  No one wants it to disintegrate because it would cause great turmoil in the region. - 1997-98

SPECIAL PLACES

Albanian World Wide Web Home Page - A SPECIAL EFFORT - (Site now "out of business")

Covered not only the country of Albania, but Albanians - because "Albanians cover a far larger territory than the country, and to speak of Albania only would mean excluding half of the ethnic Albanian population.  Albania has a population of about 3.3 million, with seven million Albanians who live in their ancestral lands in the Balkans."  Statement gives a certain insight into the concept of nationhood! Albania continues to undergo profound social, political, and economic change.  I suppose the best outside view of conditions comes from the US Travel Advisory. "Facilities for tourism are not well developed and many of the goods and services taken for granted in other European countries are not yet available. Hotel accommodations are limited outside of Tirana. Major roads are passable, but often in poor repair. Travelers have reported attacks by bands of thieves in all parts of the country. There are no commercial domestic flights and few rail connections. Albania has a high rate of violent crime. The influx of refugees from Kosovo has increased the potential for criminal activity, especially in the northeastern part of the country. Criminal activity outside Tirana is especially prevalent.  Medical facilities are limited, and medicine is in short supply. There are periodic outbreaks of polio, cholera, and dysentery. " August 14, 1998 the US ordered all diplomats out of the country for fear of terrorist attacks." Sounds quite dismal, does it not?  But peruse the following sites and get a different opinion.  One can still go to Albania and meet the folks without getting killed!
As always, I feel sad, grateful for the sharing and insights I receive from Albanian humans - and hopeful, in the very longggggggg run.

REENIC Albania Information Center - Probably the Widest Coverage for Albania

Albania Today

Well, here's the news!

Lonely Planet

Well, I do not necessarily agree, but here is the current one!  "This pint-sized, sunny slice of Adriatic coast has been ground down for years by poverty, blood vendettas and too many five year plans. For years boatloads of refugees have fled for a better life elsewhere, but Albania still manages to pack a wild punch of traditional Mediterranean charm and Soviet-style inefficiency. It is a giddy blend of religions, styles, cultures and landscapes, from Sunni Muslim to Albanian Orthodox, from idyllic beach resort and rocky mountain peak to intensely cultivated field. Relics from one of the longest dictatorships in Eastern Europe rub shoulders with citrus orchards, olive groves and vineyards. Decrepit, Chinese-built factories stand next to breathtaking mosques; ornately decorated Orthodox churches face off 'Soviet Brutal' palaces of culture. Kicked around by the Balkan big boys for millennia and turned upside down by its very own Maoist Cultural Revolution in the 1960s, Albania is now tentatively embracing democracy, the outside world and a few foreign travellers. Some things won't ever change, though: the spectacular forested mountains, the warm Mediterranean sun, and the heart-rendingly blue waters of the Adriatic all endure the country's ups and downs."

PANORAMA

Because of the turmoil and disruption, many of these pages are not available currently.  Some which remain are outdated.  Many others are new.  I leave many of these up - as some are coming back online.

Virtual Albania Online

Nicely presented quick tour of Albania. District by district with pictures.

Albanian Daily News

Report of Independent Albanian Economic Tribune.  Current, sorta. Headlines at least.  For any more, you must pay and it is not worth it.

Albanian History

Origins to today, chronology of events, historical figures, population.  Decent on VERY brief history.

Albania - Land of the Eagles

Good information to 1998. Politics, international issues. Business, travel, history, culture, art, education, sport, vocabulary, city guide.  DATED.

Albanian Connections

Useful for sumary of relations between US and Serbia for control of Kosovo information and chronology.  Includes  same Albanian culture, history sites as other sites.

Human Rights Albanian Report 2001

"With the rapid repatriation of over 450,000 Kosovar refugees from northern Albania to Kosovo by 2000, Albania was once again able to turn inward and focus on internal reforms. Problems remained with regard to corruption, excessive force used by the police, trafficking of women, and controls on the media."

Heritage History of Albania

"Albanian Shqipnija or Shqiperia, officially Republic of Albania (1994 estimated population 3,374,000), 11,101 square miles (28,752 square kilometers), South Eastern Europe, on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan Peninsula; bordered by Yugoslavia (North), Macedonia (East), and Greece (South). Except for the fertile Adriatic coast, Albania is mountainous, rising to 9,066 feet (2,763 meters) at Mountain Korab, on the Macedonian border. More than 90% of the population is ethnically Albanian; the Albanian language is an Indo-European tongue with two dialects. Greeks are the largest ethnic minority. The population is predominantly Muslim, with Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox minorities. Tiranë (1994 estimated population 400,000) is the capital of Albania on the Ishm River. The city, founded in the early 17th century by the Turks, was enlarged (1920) when it became the capital. Tiranë was held (1939-43) by Italy during World War II."

Brief History of Albania

From the Illyrians, Greeks, Romans, through the Byzantine Empire, medieval culture, the Ottomans and the harsh nature of Turkish rule, Albanian nationalism, independent Albania, King Zog, WWII, after the war.

Jewish History of Albania

Culture

The land and the people, the language, food and drink, music."

Democratic Party of Albania

The party, people, press, feedback - very interesting.  "The Democratic Party is the first opposition party in Albania after 50 long years of communist totalitarism. Its foundation in December 1990, marked the end on the one-party state system. Although very young in age and despite the enormous difficulties and violence by the State Sigurimi (the then-communist secret police), in the first multi-party general elections in March 1991, the Democratic Party managed to obtain a considerable number of seats in the Parliament, thus becoming the first opposition parliamentary group in the Albania's history of the last 50 years." DATED.

CIA Albania Factbook 2002 - All the Statistical Data You Could Want

USAID: Albania Country Profile

Quick, current info.  Geography, population, economy.

Albania, 2001

Excellent vignettes from the CIA World Fact Book

Country Watch - Albania

The President's Office

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Excellent site, should be commended. Long but veryyyyyyy interesting statement on Kosovo and Albania's position.

Albanian Parliament

Albanian Ministry of Defense - at Least It is Current

And fairly interesting

Chamber of Commerce and Industry - Tirana

Current, every contact you would need.  But limited for anything else.

Did You Know That?

Interesting facts such as the world's only recently living saint is an Albanian - Mother Theresa.

Ada Air - Albania's Airline

Well, at least it has the current? schedules to Kosovo and Skopje.  Airline looks a little scary but it is just fine.  And it is remarkable to fly on a sunny day from Tirana to Skopje.  And look down all the way.  Can actually see Alexander the Great riding across the plaines.

Rescue of the Jews of Albania

Author insists that 100% of Albanian Jews rescued during WWII. And The Jews of Albania and their Salvation During the Holocaust. "Too little is known worldwide about the fact that only Albania in Europe protected its own Jews during the Holocaust while also offering shelter to other Jews who had escaped into Albania from Serbia, Austria, and Greece."  And more here.

The Serb-Albanian War and International Community's Miscalculation - ESP in 1998 !

By Shinasi Rama, Columbia University. Brillliant 32 page research article.  From International Journal, Spring 1998. "Policymakers and analysts that have followed closely the political process in Kosova, are puzzled and perplexed by the recent developments. For most of them, the most disturbing aspect of the Serb-Albanian War is that the Albanians have definitely switched en masse from their exemplary non-violent Ghandian behavior to the more traditional, and their opinion the more effective method of realizing their goal of gaining the independence of Kosova. The main concern of policymakers is that the longer the Serb-Albanian War lasts, the more the chances are increased that a part of the Albanians in Albania, if not even the Albanian government itself, will have no other choice but to support the Albanians in Kosova and fight on their side. The possibility that the further prolongation of the conflict in Kosova will spillover and destabilize  Macedonia appears almost certain.

Given the geostrategic position of the peninsula, and in particular, the key geopolitical position held there by the Albanians, the failure of the international community to adopt a strategic approach that might lead towards a realist and definitive solution of the Albanian problem in the former Yugoslavia, that is, at least, the acceptance of the independence of Kosova as a possible option, is bound to have grave consequences for the long term interests of the powers which have vital interests in the region. Especially true for the long term interests of the US. The emergence of KLA and the growing distrust in the intentions of the international community are indications that the emergence of a political class which will be extremely realist in its foreign policy assumptions is more likely, especially when one considers that the future Albanian politicians will come from a traditional non-Hoxhaist background. The consequence of the failure of the international community to act properly is that its ability to influence the future developments in Albania and the Balkans will be greatly hampered. With their state, or without any state, Albanians will continue to be a factor of primary importance in the region and for the security of Europe and the Mediterranean basin.

Virtual Tour - "Greater Albania"

Click on the map and visit the major cities and towns, places of interest in Albania and Kosova.  DATED.

   BULGARIA:   Mixing Sophistication and Crudity

2001. THE KING HAS RETURNED!!!!

1999.  Bulgarian history is a fascinating subject. Bulgaria had an impressive record on human rights and was moving ahead - and then disaster. But I can't help but be "hit over the head" when I am standing in Bulgaria in the midst of the near subsistence living of so many of the people. It is hard to avoid in this country no larger than Ohio. I remember the past - when in spite of the "secret police," one could enjoy the beauty and serenity of the monasteries in the mountains and the sea breezes on the beaches.  

When I was last in Bulgaria in January 1997, the country was in terrible shape.  But Bulgaria's economy appeared to be improving rapidly after the 1996-97 crisis that brought down the Socialist government of former Prime Minister Zhan Videnov and later prompted establishment of a currency stabilization board. "Direct foreign investment in Bulgaria has picked up a bit during the one-and-a-half years of rule by the Right-of-Center Alliance of Democratic Forces (ODS) government. But it is still small compared to other East European nations in transition. One major reason why was cited by former U.S. Secretary of State Lawrence Eagleburger, who visited Bulgaria and was quoted as saying: 'Those who do not know about Bulgaria think it is as unstable as Yugoslavia. But it is in fact an island of stability in the Balkans.' Bulgaria's biggest problem remains corruption. "A distraught woman waiting in line to get medical treatment said: 'There is virtually nothing you can do without knowing the right people in the right places. You cannot graduate university unless you pay, and you cannot get a tooth filled unless you pay.'"

In spite of my many visits, I wrote in 1999 that I could not summarize  that situation better than the Wall Street Journal of April 22, 97: "For all their promises, Bulgaria's Socialists (really the former Communists in drag) succeeded only in leading most Bulgarians to destitution. Macroeconomic stabilization was never achieved; inflation hit 300% by the end of last year, rendering wages and pensions almost meaningless. Other structural reforms were neglected... State-owned companies, two-thirds of which lose money, still make up some 90% of the economy. Crime and corruption flourish. Perhaps Bulgaria's dive into the economic abyss was a necessary evil. The country was never galvanized by an anti-Communist movement or the visionary leadership of a Vaclav Havel or Lech Walesa. It was only the toxic combination of soaring inflation, empty store shelves, a banking crisis and the cold shoulder from frustrated multilateral lenders that forced Bulgarians into the streets early this year and ushered an anti-Communist, pro-Western president, Petar Stoyanov, into power. Like other Eastern countries at square one of the recovery process, the lack of solid institutions, laws and political processes mean that personalities are that much more important. On that score, at least, Bulgaria seems to be in better hands than ever before. President Stoyanov is a staunch partisan of reform. That he speaks with brutal candor about the difficult reform task ahead is an encouraging sign. Mr. Kostov, who will probably become Bulgaria's next prime minister,  said, 'It is important now that we convince the world that a relapse into the past is out of the question.'"

As always, I feel sad, thoughtful about what my Bulgarian friends have shared with me for so long about the agonizing history of their country - and hopeful, in the long run.

SPECIAL PLACES

Wonderland Bulgaria - SPECIAL SERVICE

First rate Bulgarian news source. And the land, history, culture, folklore, the people. Check the archives HERE that are so important. "We have named our site Wonderland Bulgaria because in any country's past and present, in its way of life and customs, in its traditions and culture, in its character and nature, there have existed a great number of really unbelievable, wonderful, fantastic things. They all together are combined to form that marvellous kaleidoscope, underlying its unique and original charm and making it different from the rest, simultaneously throwing across time and space those visible and invisible bridges which connect it with other lands and nations. Therefore, we seek to show as much as  possible of the peculiar aroma, flavour, spirit and magic of WONDERLAND BULGARIA."

Bulgaria Online - All the News that's Fit to Print!

PANORAMA

Bulgaria on the Internet

Extensive site.  Facts, news, what's new.

Bulgaria On-Line

Bulgarian Index - publications related to Bulgaria from more than 20 newspapers, magazines, news agencies and radio stations.

Bulgarian News Agency

Current, solid collection, extensive, by month, by day. First rate articles from many sources on 400 subjects.

Bulgarian Cuisine - Great Recipes

Bulgarian Biweekly Economic Review - By Paris Financial Daily.  Excellent source, daily and biweekly.  Introductory page looks like it is in Bulgarian but the news is in English!

The Bulgarians' Land

Bulgaria is situated in Southeastern Europe, in the central part of the Balkan Peninsula. It borders on Romania to the north, Yugoslavia and the Republic of Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south and the Black Sea to the east. Bulgaria covers an area of 110 993.6 square kilometres and its population numbers about 8.5 million (1992). Its territory is about the same size US state of Ohio.

President of the Republic of Bulgaria

Important to read his articles, speeches, interviews.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Comprehensive and interesting.  Click around.

Republic of Bulgaria, Ministers, Council - Good Site

Ministry of Economics - Also Very Interesting

Embassy of The Republic of Bulgaria - W.D.C.

General history and information.  Latest news.  International relations. A Message from Ambassador Philip Dimitrov.  " My country has much to be proud of creating a successful foundation for a modern, democratic, and free society. We have emerged from our recent Communist past as a full partner in the international community, dedicating ourselves to free market principles and to strengthening political, economic and security cooperation on all levels. In recent years, Bulgaria and the United States have developed strong bilateral relations. The United States has been supportive of Bulgaria's efforts to develop a multi-party democracy, a pluralistic society and a free market economy. Bulgaria has contributed to U.S. efforts to promote stability, peace and economic integration in Southeastern Europe. Our website includes a wealth of information about current events in Bulgaria, and about issues of interest to both our nations."

Internet Resources for Bulgarian Studies

Very dated but still a decent array of information and analysis and sites.  Country Overview, Online News, State & Politics, Foreign Affairs, Law, Economy, History, Culture, Society, Ethnic Issues, Religion, Environment Human Rights, Media, Science & Education, Geography, Travel.  Art, literature, trade and much more.  From the Slavic Studies Web.

The Threshold of History - Bulgaria in the Last 1000 Years

Very nice extensive analysis.

Heritage History of Bulgaria

Good tight summary.  "Bulgaria, officially Republic of Bulgaria (1994 estimated population 8,800,000), 42,823 square miles (110,912 square kilometers), South Eastern Europe, on the Eastern Balkan Peninsula. It is bordered by the Black Sea (East), Romania (North), Macedonia and Yugoslavia (West), Greece (South), and European Turkey (South East). Central Bulgaria is traversed from east to west by the Balkan Mountains; the Rhodope range, with the country's highest peak, Musala Mountain (9,592 ft/2,923 m) is in the southwest. The principal river is the Danube. The population consists chiefly of Bulgars (86%) and Turks (9%). The Bulgarian Orthodox Church is the predominant religion, but most Turks and some ethnic Bulgarians are Muslims. Bulgarian is the official language."

Internet Resources on Bulgaria with emphasis on politics and elections

The Most Distinguished Bulgarian Rulers

The People of Bulgaria

"Although Bulgaria, like most countires in the world, is characterized by a large ethnic and religious variety, the major portion of its population are  Slavonic-speaking Bulgarians - 86 per cent."

Salvation of Bulgarian Jewry During WWII

Use with care.   Substantive site with excerpts from documents and histories. Thesis is that despite an alliance with Germans, Bulgarians and King Boris resisted Nazis Jewish orders and saved 50,000 Jews. But seems to ignore the destruction of Jews in Bulgarian-held areas. Other sites on this subject include Bulgarian Conspiracy to Rescue Jews and Symposium, "Who Saved the Jews?"

The Jews of Bulgaria:  Splendid Site !

Jewish History of Bulgaria

Excellent comprehensive analysis from the ancient world through WWII, Holocaust, communism to today.

Bulgarians on Board the Titanic

Bulgaria, Human Rights Report 2001

"Abuses against Roma and restrictions on Islamic practitioners, and trade in arms in violation of a U.N. embargo offset improvement in other fields in Bulgaria, notably in freedom of expression. Roma were victims of police brutality and violent attacks by private citizens who acted with impunity."

POLITICAL DEBACLE, RECOVERY, CHALLENGE,  DESPERATION

This section pinpoints the desperate times of Bulgaria almost five  years ago.  The December 96-January 97 Uproar, the April 97 Election, and Impact. All of the sites and quotes in this chapter, highlighted in navy blue are KAPUT!  I am leaving them up because on a close reading, it became clear that together they portray a stunning picture of the trials and deprivation of the Bulgarian humans in their movement from totalitarianism, Soviet style to freedom with its enormous costs and challenges. Readers, students can decide how much different Bulgaria is today from that time.
The December 96-January 97 Uproar
Drums and Whistles Mark Bulgarian Protest - CSM, Jan. 17, 97

"Every day at 4 o'clock, the streets of this capital echo with the sound of drums, rattles, and whistles as tens of thousands of people begin their new afternoon routine: collect in front of the presidency building, march en masse to the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, and chant for the overthrow of the government. Taking their cue from neighboring Serbia, people in cities across Bulgaria have been taking to the streets every day for nearly two weeks to express outrage against their political leaders - former Communists who have refused to implement key economic reforms. 'The protests are just a symptom of the profound political, economic, and social crisis in the country," says Ognian Avramov, an adviser to outgoing President Zhelyu Zhelev."

Bulgaria:  A Nation in Revolt - RFERL, Jan. 13, 97

"Like many of their former comrades in Hungary, Poland and even Romania, they wanted a return to the safety and predictability of communism: cheap food, cheap housing and a comprehensive network of health services provided more or less free by the state.... But faced with the task of fitting Bulgaria into a new mold, the victorious Socialist Party prevaricated. Restructuring and privatization efforts were more or less halted, as were currency and economic measures aimed at stabilization. Even agreement on a policy towards NATO and European Union expansion was made impossible by suggestions that Bulgaria might be better off orientating itself towards Russia."

Bulgaria's Fresh Start - WSJ, April 22, 1997

"On Saturday, Bulgarian voters laid the blame for their economic misery right where it belongs: at the feet of the Socialist Party. The winner of the weekend parliamentary elections, Ivan Kostov's 15-party United Democratic Forces, is expected to emerge with 56% of the total vote. That's enough to claim some 136 seats in the 240-seat Parliament... The new government inherits a mess...Cleaning up Bulgaria's economic Chernobyl will mean, at the least, moving against a large number of corrupt interests who have profited by plundering state assets and tapping into old Communist connections. They will want to thwart or hijack the privatization process.To their great credit, Bulgarians have placed their confidence in a group of political leaders who, for the first time, made no promises of quick fixes or instant wealth and security."

New Bulgarian Leaders Face Tough Reforms - France Presse, April 20

"Anger over an economy in which 2.5 million people must make do on pensions of 17 dollars a month exploded into a series of street demonstrations that finally forced the socialists to agree to early elections. But the new ruling alliance, if it wishes to succeed, will have to persuade Bulgarians to accept new sacrifices. And, in a country with few illusions where 32 percent of the population wants to emigrate abroad, this is likely to be no easy task."

New Bulgarian President - Interview with Radio Free Europe, February, 97

"Ladies and gentlemen, I come from a country which, unfortunately, is experiencing a severe economic crisis, which is even suffering from a bread shortage. I come from a country in which for 45 years there was a shortage of freedom, a shortage of freedom of speech. All this should have turned us into pessimists...But I believe Bulgaria will manage to overcome its greatest historical challenge -- to join the European family. Culturally and geographically, Bulgaria is part of Europe. Bulgaria will become a part of Europe spiritually and economically as well. I firmly believe in that."

The Desperateness of Life, 96-98
Bulgarians Tired of Leading a Dog's Life

"The reference to stray dogs is more than an image. Some 30,000 of the mangy creatures prowl the streets and often bite hapless Sofians who, like them, are scavenging through the dustbins for a morsel to eat. France has just donated 2,500 anti-rabies vaccines to Sofia hospitals which face an increasing number of patients needing treatment for dog bites.
Since March last year, the price of goods has rocketed by 2,000 percent... Three out of four Bulgarians live in economic hardship while a further 16 percent live below the poverty line." "With my pension, I can barely feed myself. I buy three large loaves a week and never eat meat," Slavcho Georgyev, 75, stated. "Like most of the country's 2.5 million pensioners who account for nearly a quarter of the Bulgarian population, Georgyev has to make do with some 26,000 lev (some 17 dollars) a month. The sum is derisory in a country where electricity bills have soared 400 percent since the start of the year, while heating has increased by 150 percent and the price of petrol by 480 percent."
The public health sector is also near collapse. "We don't have enough medicines to save patient's lives. We are short of antibiotics and clotting agents." "A woman who is about to give birth has to take surgical gloves, sewing thread, nappies and medicines to hospital with her," a nurse said. "The risk of infection is enormous. It's a nightmare," she added. Many old people cannot afford to buy medicines and, hardly surprisingly, Bulgaria's doctors' union says the mortality rate is escalating. Conversely, the nation's birthrate is the lowest in Europe. But some 250,000 orphans live in appalling conditions. Sixty percent of orphanages have virtually no heating and children also suffer from malnutrition. At one centre for handicapped children four children starved to death recently. In this context of widespread misery, one person attempts to commit suicide every 40 minutes in Bulgaria.

Bulgarian Election Meaningless for Ghetto Dwellers - Reuters, April 17, 97

"The Gypsies and ethnic Turks who live in the notorious Stolipinovo ghetto in Bulgaria's second city hold out little hope of change.  About 50,000 Gypsies and ethnic Bulgarian Turks, some crammed 20 to a room, live in run-downapartment blocks in the Stolipinovo quarter of Plovdiv. The chairman of Bulgaria's Roma foundation said most Stolipinovo inhabitants were unemployed and relied on welfare benefits, which had not been paid for months. ..The Gypsies, nomadic until the 1960s when the communist government began a campaign of assimilation, severely curbing their religious and cultural traditions and forcing them to settle in Soviet-style collective farms or in housing projects. More then 70 percent are believed to be jobless and the same number are thought to be illiterate. Some Gypsies scratch a living by collecting waste paper and bottles for recycling."

89% of the Bulgarian People are Facing Poverty - MPA, April 6, 97
UN Assessment Finds Bulgaria on the Brink of Humanitarian Disaster

Embassy cable from Sofia, March, 97.  

RULERS OF BULGARIA

Rulers of Bulgaria - Full list with Biographies

Tsar Boris III

Prince Alexander I

Tsar Ferdinand

Georgi Dimitrov

Alexander Stamboliyski

Todor Zhivkov

Zhelyu Zhelev

Simon the Second:  King of Bulgaria - His personal site.

       CROATIA:  The Country Without Roofs

2001.  THE NEW GOVERNMENT AND PEACE

1998.  The Country That Broke the Stalemate.  Ambivalence describes the reaction and views of most Non-Serbs to Croatia. One fact, however, seems ignored. For better or for worse, it was the Croatians and their amazing military campaign of Summer 95 that broke the stalemate, regained the territory, scared the Serbs, and made the Dayton Accord possible. What that says in reality remains to be seen. Does Croatia bear some responsibility for the destruction in Bosnia? Yes.  Was it also responsible for making a brokered peace for Bosnia possible?  Yes.

From the ashes of former Yugoslavia, the independent Croatian state arose, the fulfillment, in the words of President Tudjman, of the Croats' "thousand-year-old dream of independence."  Yet few countries in Europe have been born amid such bitter controversy and bloodshed.  The savage war left about one-third of Croatia in ruins and resulted in the flight of a quarter of a million of its Serbian minority.  Croatia's unique position on the crossroads of Europe - between Eastern and Western Christendom, the Mediterranean, and the Balkans and betwee the old Habsburg and Ottoman empires - has clearly been both a curse and a blessing, inviting the attention of larger and more powerful neighbors.  Its history speaks of vigorous turbulence and drama.
For years after an initial trip in the early Sixties, I could not return to Croatia, haunted with what I knew (and what few wrote about) of the terrible abuse of the Ustashe Nationalists against the Jewish, Serbian, Gypsy citizens in their midst with a ferocity and barbarism that outstripped the Nazis.  I could not go back to Zagreb and gaze at the Cathedral.  I could not go back to Jasenovic and shudder at the pictures of the hacked up bodies in my mind.  I could return over and over again to all the Killing Centers of the Nazi regime, but I could not come back here.  I did not know then what I know now of the Serbian participation in freeing its space of its Jewish and Croatian citizens with a speed and precision that was record-setting.

A very few of us knew without exception that all these countries would emerge as free nations some day.  We knew about the need to be free that we observed in all our special time spent in those countries.  We also knew that when that happened, we would be able to write the history of the Final Solution and Holocaust in the countries that eluded our analysis. And now it is happening.

I did not return, however, because of the Final Solution but because of the War.  Early on, I realized that my "friends" in Serbia were fabricating the worst kind of propaganda and the Western nations believed it and the Serbs began to believe it.  In spite of all my antipathy  toward Croatia, it did not take a rocket scientist to realize that the Ustashe was not alive and well and that the problems erupting were not the same.  It did not take a rocket scientist to realize that stark Serbian aggression and Serbian insistence to realize its centuries-old insistence of Greater Serbia was not a Civil War.  And so I spoke out across the country in panels and speeches and TV - and faced my Serbian friends' charges of "traitor."

And of course, my knowledge required that I go to the War, into Croatia and the Krajina and Bosnia and see, discover what it meant to be in war zones, jumping over land minds, feeling the shock waves of blasts.  And respond to the refugees, the orphans, and the terrible aggression of the Serbs.  I returned to a country in which I believed its nationalist portion had "sinned" during WWII.  And watched its humans being treated with such disdain by the Serbian majority that had considered Croats almost non-citizens since the beginning of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.  And so I jumped in to help - just a little.  And I learned.  
I saw Tudjman once and spent time with his Ministers. He is a very strange fellow - an enigma to me.  But the Croatians have become humans to me and I thank my many Croatian friends.  I also now have had the opportunity to spend time in all parts of Croatia.  The wonderful islands, the not-so wonderful beaches.  I have driven my car along the border, through hundreds, it seems, of bombed out villages where not one structure is without bomb or bullet holes.  I think of Croatia in those areas as towns and villages WITHOUT ROOFS.  THERE ARE NO ROOFS ANYWHERE.  NO ROOFS.

SPECIAL PLACES

Croatian Home Page - THE PREMIER CROATIAN SITE I

Tied to Croatia Net. Country of a thousand islands. Culture, history, independent news, politics, tourism.  Kornati National Park. 10 pages on the Croatian islands. Brief overview of Croatia's history, from its early days to present.   Political system, executive branch, legislature, judicial system, science, music, sport.   War damage, economic problems, the future prospects.   Armed services of Croatia, recent events.   Relations with many of Croatia's neighbors, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, agreements.  Essays, photos, articles, poetry, art.

Croatia Net - THE PREMIER CROATIAN SITE II

Start here.

COUNTRY, BUSINESS

Croatian Web Central

Extensive resources on Croatia, some dated.  Information on many subjects, from Croatian wines to Croatian literature.   Important on Dalmatia. "The fairy tale about Dalmatia can begin at any place and any time - in a boat on the sea, under the olive tree in a valley, in a vineyard on the slope of the hill, on the city square under the church tower, in the morning when the sun comes out and everything is silvery, at dusk when moon appears and everything is golden, at night when everything turns to stars, during daytime when everything comes to life, with the bustle of its busy people."

Economic Overview

"Before the current war, the republic of Croatia, after Slovenia, was the most prosperous and most industrialized area of the former Yugoslavia, with a per capita output about one third above the Yugoslav average. Croatia was especially strong in tourism, with its Dalmatian coast representing the most important Yugoslav attraction for foreign visitors. The war, including the seizure by Croatian Serb separatists of approximately one third of Croatia's territory, including the road and  rail links to coastal tourist sites, had a devastating effect on the Croatian economy."

Solta

"Situated, approximately, 9 nautical miles from the city of Split, in-between the islands of Brac and V. Drvenik, you'll find "an oasis of untouched natural beauty," the Dalmatian island of Solta.

The Tourism Extravaganza from Croatia.Net

Stop here before you take your trip.  Full range of politics, history, current issues.

Welcome to Croatia

Visit all cities and major towns by clicking on map.  Full-scale Croatian Homepage.  The range of information from history to politics to art and culture. All the political parties. "The Croatian political system is democratic and based on a respect for human rights, law, national equality, social justice and multiple political parties."

Welcome to Slavonski Brod - Lovely Tourist/History Site

Zagreb - The Capital of Croatia

Zagreb is more enticing and complex than portrayed here.

NEWS, LINKS, MAPS

Best Maps of Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina

Wonderful Net access. Just click on any place from hundreds of listings, and presto, you are there. Keep on top when you are studying this issue. Once there, you can move with an arrow anywhere.

Croatian Links

Could be called "The Official White & Yellow Pages of Croatian Internet Community."  Currently contains over 6,000 links to various Croatian web sites and e-mail addresses." Compared to several other nations, the Croats have been unusually busy creating new Internet sites.

Croatia Net

History, politics, government, economy, international relations.

Current News

And the range of News Available.

HISTORY AND CULTURE

Croatian History

Full summary, from a common perspective.

Croatia Net History - Well Presented and Interesting

Croatian Language: Basics - Learn the basic language here

Croatian Cuisine - Yummers!

Recipes for lamb soup, potato soup, Istrian cannelloni, calamaries with potatoes, carp slavonian style, Dalmatian fritters.

Croatia:  Myth and Reality

Online essays on attacks on Croatia that author says are untrue.  Such as the following. A Croatian Ustase terrorist assassinated King Alexander ("Reality: King Alexander Karageorgevic was assassinated by a Macedonian named Vlada Gheorghieff, a member of the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization. Gheorghieff did not flee to the Vatican. He was attacked on the spot by French police and died the evening of the assassination.");
All Croatians were Fascists during WWII and all Serbs were pro-allied ("Reality: Both Croatia and Serbia had pro-Axis governments during World War II. All of the nations of Yugoslavia had elements which supported the Axis and all had elements that were anti-Axis during the War. However, it was the Croatian dominated Partisans, led by the Croatian Josip Broz Tito which formed the only true anti-Fascist fighting force in Yugoslavia and the most formidable Allied force in occupied Europe during World War II"); the basket of human eyeballs; two million Serbs died ("Myth: Between 500,000 and 2,000,000 Serbs were murdered by the Croatian government during World War II.  Reality: The exact number of war victims in Yugoslavia during World War II may never be known due to fifty years of intentional disinformation by the Yugoslavian and Serbian governments, Serbian exile groups, and others. However, it is likely that approximately one million people of all nationalities died of war-related causes in all of Yugoslavia during World War II and that as many as 125,000 Serbs died of war-related causes in Croatia during the War.

The question of war losses during World War II represents the most divisive, heated and emotional issue among all of the nationalities of the former Yugoslavia during the post-War period").; borders were drawn to benefit Croatia ("MYTH: The Serbian-Croatian border was drawn up secretly by Tito, a Croatian, in 1943 benefiting Croatia at the expense of Serbia. REALITY: Croatia's border with Serbia is essentially the same as in 1848 and 1918 with the exception of those lands taken from Croatia and given to Serbia and Montenegro under both Yugoslav regimes. This mythology is a recent creation of the Serbian government and has been given wide circulation by Serbian apologists"). ; Serbs have no rights in Croatia; Croatian coat of arms is a Fascist symbol. "Serbia chose Communism, expansion, war, and the continued myth of Yugoslavia. The Serbian leadership chose to launch an all-out war of aggression against her neighbors to force them to accept the Myth. When the entire free world finally recognized that Yugoslavia was indeed a myth, Serbia simply recreated it with the stroke of a pen backed by a few thousand tanks. "

Bleiberg Tragedy

Rich extensive page on an unfortunate "happening" from one strong point of view.  "May of 1945 was one of the most tragic months in the entire Croatian history.  A huge disarmed Croatian Army was handed over to Tito by the British Command. The henchmen of Tito did not limit their slaughterhouse tactics to the members of the Croatian Army or its civilian followers. As soon as Tito was in power, he set up concentration and slave labor camps throughout the country. Hundreds of thousands of citizens of all ages, sexes and from every walk of life were imprisoned, tortured, and finally liquidated. Croatia became an immense graveyard - her ravines, forests, and rivers all crowded with corpses. Few of these people were "war criminals," that is, individuals who themselves had killed Communists.

The British military authorities bear a moral responsibility. The British were obligated by the Geneva Convention to accept the Croatian surrender and to give the retreating Croat Army and civilian population sanctuary to protect them from Partisan vengeance. Although the American authorities do not bear the same degree of responsibility for Tito's  policy of genocide by Serbian-led and staffed forces, nevertheless American recognition and support of Tito from 1942 to 1945 vied with the assistance offered this usurper by that credulous politician, Winston Churchill. This dual support vitally helped the establishment of Communism in Croatia. And the same support has continued to this day through the truly massive outpourings of the dollars of the American taxpayer!'"
 And then from the LA Times, "Yugoslav Killing Fields: A Grisly Secret Comes Out, November 4, 1990 * Atrocity: Communists executed thousands after the war. Those who revealed it hope the message is heard.

Overview of History and Culture - Range of information

GOVERNMENT, POLITICS, WAR, PEACE

Government of the Republic of Croatia - Official Page

Republic of Croatia - Office of the President

President Stjepan Mesic .  Read his speeches and actions.  What WAS even more interesting is what WAS on the site.  Tudjman's biography and  his speeches in English.  For example, in January 1998, his interesting interpretation of events:
"Throughout the period since its establishment Croatia has faced predominantly biased misconceptions and misunderstandings. To all the creators and guardians of the Versailles order it was almost the chief culprit for the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia, and it even achieved its State and its independence against their will. Subsequently, contrary to many predictions, it did not yield to aggression, but it has emerged victorious from many  political-diplomatic and military battles, it has liberated its formerly occupied areas, and proved to be one of the key factors in the solution of the Bosnian crisis. Based on the stability of its sociopolitical and economic order, and on the maturity of its policy, Croatia has clearly defined its identity and Euro-Atlantic vocation as a Central European and Mediterranean country, while opposing each and every Balkan regionalism. It is only by virtue of its successes, and by its constructive readiness to cooperation with international factors in the  resolution of the war crisis in the former Yugoslavia, and currently in Bosnia, that Croatia has gradually overcome all vicissitudes and misunderstandings - until the world grasped and accepted its key role in the creation of peace and a new international order in this seismic region. With our vigorous democratic order and stable economic system, and strengthened international position, we now look to a new period of internal development and gradual integration into the Western economic and security system. Many challenges await us on that road, and continued obstacles, stemming not only from old understandings and from the abovementioned frustrated views, but also from special interests. Therefore, we can certainly expect that we shall continue to be faced with political and economic efforts of a shorter and longer duration, detrimental to our country."

Politics - Reach Any Government, Political Person, Group

And also here.

International Relations - DATED

THE NASTY BUSINESS ABOUT THE JEWS AND JASENOVIC AND ANTISEMITISM IN WWII

The Effort to Turn the Finger on Serbia With Some Justification - and the Effort to Reduce the Effect of the Ustashi.    Fact:  During WWII, the Ustashe Nationalists committed dreadful crimes and slaughtered thousands and thousands of people.  Now we know that the Serbian Nationalists also participated in their brand of Final Solutions.  (Alongside almost all the other nations of Europe). The following writers provide us with the information on the Serbian participation, which is slowly coming to the fore.  Much of it is factual.  But much of it was written to politically counteract the Serbian propaganda that the Ustashe was in power again.  The articles are important - but of course must be read cautiously. Yet the issues must be considered.  I have been to Jasenovic recently and what is written here is not exactly accurate in a descriptive way.  The full range of issues is treated in Part Two of this Eastern Europe Internet Book - on the Holocaust in Croatia. Return to the Index and "click." 

Anti-Semitism in Serbia in WWII - SITE DOWN

"Even today Serbia carries a halo of a heroic small martyr-country which had supposedly made a great contribution in the battle and for the victory of the anti-Hitler coalition as one of the members of that coalition. This is completely untrue. Serbia was not one of the miserable occupied countries exposed to the German terror. During the whole war, Serbia was the most trustworthy ally of the Third Reich on the territory of Europe under the Nazi domination. Unlike in the other lands of former Yugoslavia there was no organized, and even less widespread, armed anti-Hitler movements in Serbia.  Two months ago it was reported in an Israeli newspaper that "one member of the Serbian parliament accused the Jews of stabbing Serbia in the back with a knife."

"It seems that a newspaperman from "Borba" was right when he concluded his article with the following words: 'The deceptions by propaganda about the lack of antisemitism in Serbia do not line up with reality: Antisemitism has always existed in Serbia and history continues with its unbroken continuity. The same as the statements from some Serbian intellectuals that only 'propagandistic lies claim that Serbs liquidated Jews during the Second World War.'  The above is stated by Serb Dr. Ljubo Tadic, professor on the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade, and by professor Dr. Andrija Gamsa of the Faculty of Law, who is sadly - a Serbian Jew."

Atlas of the Ustasha Genocide - Published in Belgrade, 1993

Cardinal Alojzije Stepinac and Saving the Jews in Croatia during WWII

Important article based in part on fantasy.  That Israel would make Stepinac a Righteous Gentile is as far from reality as one can get.  Some Croatians saved Jews, but no one will yet give Stepinac an award for doing so. But perhaps . . .

Croat vs. Serb Treatment of Jews in WWII - Serbs exploiting Jewish Sensitivity.

Holocaust History Misappropriated

by Philip J. Cohen, Midstream: MIDSTREAM: A Monthly Jewish Review November 1992. Important article.  NO LONGER AVAILABLE ON LINE
"Belgrade has promoted the myth of Serbian kinship with the Jews as fellow victims of Nazi oppression, while concealing the true extent of Serbian collaboration with the Nazis. It is ironic that Serbia is now seeking Jewish support for a war in which both the idealogy and methodology so tragically echo nazism. The European Community, the Helsinki Commission, the United Nations, and the US have all condemned Serbia as the aggressor. Western diplomats have characterized the current Serbian regime as "a lying, terrorist criminal organization." Serbia, however, claims to be the victim and campaigns for Jewish sympathy and support, exploiting the powerful symbolism of the Holocaust. Serbia's professed solicitude for the Jewish people must be reexamined."

Jasenovac: The Truth About the Lies of Dr.Bulajic

One man's objection to the current material on Jasenovac.  Losses Established on Wrong Basis.  Manipulation.  Accusations of Bulajic and Yugoslavia Against Croatia on the Internet. Author writes: "Dr. Bulajic, a Yugoslav communist diplomat, now Director of the Museum of Victims of  Genocide in Belgrade, became known for his activities in proving that enormous human losses occurred in Jasenovac, especially after the publication of my book "Population Losses of Yugoslavia in the World War II" in the edition of the Yugoslav Society of Victimology in 1989."

The Truth About Memorial Center Jasenovac - A Different View

Facts About Civil Wars in Ex-Yugoslavia

Really nasty, distorted non-factual material, but reflective of a stream of stuff that came out during the Bosnian Crisis. "Truth is the first casualty of any war. One can hardly find more illustrative example of this fact than the case of civil wars in ex-Yugoslavia. In trying to find an excuse to a ruthless military occupation of strategically important Balkan Peninsula the bottomless pit of Western "morality" showed its face. Surpassing any Goebbelsian dream relentless propaganda left no stone unturned.   Is there any truth that subservient Western media did not distort? Any-one in the West concerned about democracy should take note."

  CZECH REPUBLIC:   Havel's Open Society

 Smaller than South Carolina, the Czech Republic is served well by some of its past traditions - which one can pursue on this site. It struggles like the others, however, with both reconciliation with the past and building foundations for an open future. Prague is truly the "city of a thousand spires," rich in history and culture. It is well on the way to becoming integrated into the Western Europe mainstream - from which it believes it came.  Why is it succeeding when so many other countries are facing poverty and disruption?  Theories abound.  Perhaps its history of "nearness" to Western Europe and its previous experience (however short) with democracy, plus its economic resources, special leadership, and its central geographic location may assist ponderers in their conclusions.  People do suffer in the Czech Republic.  The environmental problems are staggering.  Just drive north from Prague to Germany and see what I mean. It has ethnic minority difficulties.  The economy needs strengthening.  But optimism is warranted.
I suppose there are few places I have not been in this intriguing country.  But many many years ago in 1965, I started walking through Terezin or Theresianstadt as the Nazis called it - as I have done several times since. I have written extensively about it.  It is the one place I would always go back to.

"Czechoslovakia's "Velvet Revolution" in November 1989 was probably the most unequivocably positive of eastern Europe's anti-Communist upheavals, as the Czechs and Slovaks shrugged off 41 years of Communist rule without a shot being fired. But the euphoria and unity of those first few months evaporated more quickly than anyone could have imagined. Just three years on, the country split into two separate states: the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czechs - always the most urbane, agnostic and liberal of the Slav nations - have fared well, enjoying much longer periods of political and economic stability, and attracting more Western investment than their former eastern bloc rivals."

SPECIAL PLACES

Czech Happenings

Superior news site. Daily reports from the Republic, press surveys, links. Also covers Slovakia.

Czech Information Center

"Internet's premier Czech information resource for everybody." Updated daily.

PANORAMA

About the Czech Republic

City Net: The Czech Republic
Czech Tourist Pages

The big one!  It has it all - including history, articles, culture.

Destination:  Czech Republic - Lonely Planet

Facts, environment, history, travel, economy, culture, where to go.

World Heritage Sites in the Czech Republic

THE JEWS IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Prague Jewish Museum's 90th Birthday
Theresienstadt - Terezin - the Nazi Concentration Camp
A Visit to Terezin

GOVERNMENT, BUSINESS, NEWS, HISTORY

CTK Archives

Excellent articles on the widest range of major issues in the critcal years from 1996, 1997.

Czech Republic and the European Union

"Comprehensive information on the efforts that the Czech Republic puts into its preparation for EU membership, as well as on the progress of the accession negotiations."  From the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Site. And then the focused material on the 2002 Delegation of the European Commission to the Czech Republic.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Extensive site covering the range of relations of the Czech Republic, from joining NATO to reimbursement of Holocaust victims.

The Prague Spring Anniversary

"Thirty years after Soviet tanks rolled into Prague to crush the Czechoslovak experiment in "socialism with a human face", there is still ambivalence about the meaning of the event.   As ministers lay commemorative wreaths at the Czech radio building - which has come to be a symbol of resistance - Czechs at either end of the political spectrum disagree about the value of the 1968 reforms."  Helpful summary.  And then the excellent capsule by Radio Prague.

The 8 in Czech History - Site Gone

But, Intriguing article. "It is said that, in the twentieth century, years ending in the number eight have been critical for the Czech lands. But "eights" marking great changes have also cropped up in earlier centuries. In 1348, Emperor and King Charles IV founded a university in Prague - today's Charles University. In May 1618 Protestant nobles ejected the imperial governors from a window of Prague Castle, and that touched off the rebellion of the Estates that ended with the definitive subjection of the Czech lands to the Habsburgs and their incorporation in the Austrian monarchy. In the unsettled year of 1848, when unrest swept across Europe, the people of Prague too rose up in revolt, but their defeat led to the Austrian government's implementing an even more repressive regime. In 1878 the Czechoslavonic Social Democratic Party came into existence in Prague - the first party of the working class in the Czech lands. In the twentieth century "eights" have been true milestones in the development of Czechoslovakia."  And then 1938 and 1948 and 1968 and 1988!

The Fortification at Dobrosov

Good history.  " The concrete structures stretching out in long lines along the border are a reminder of the tragic days of September 1938, and will continue to speak to future generations of the efforts and the abilities of the nation, as well as of its bravery and commitment to self-defence, which in the end came to naught."

Heritage History of the Czech Republic

"Czech Republic (1994 estimated population 10,408,000), 30,443 square miles (78,847 square kilometers), central Europe; bordered by Poland (North), Germany (North and West), Austria (South), and Slovakia (East). The republic comprises the traditional Czech lands of Bohemia and Moravia and Czech Silesia. The two main geographic regions are the Bohemian plateau (West) and the Moravian lowland (East). The Sudetes Mountains in the north separate Moravia from Czech Silesia. The country is landlocked, and the chief rivers-the Elbe, Vltava (Moldau), and Oder-are economically important. The population is largely Slavic, consisting chiefly of Czechs (81%) and Moravians (13%). Roman Catholicism is the largest religion, but there are sizable Protestant (notably Hussite) groups. Czech is the official language."

Jewish History of Czechoslovakia - Important Material

Parliament of the Czech Republic

Committees, documents, actions, members.

Prague Post Online

Good daily online newspaper. Breaking news, excellent articles, archives.

SUDETEN GERMANS & CZECH-GERMAN RELATIONS

Organized Sudeten Deportations Began 51 Years Ago
The Czech-German Mutual Declaration
Profile of the Sudeten German Problem
Czechs as Victims of Expulsions
Profile of the Benes Decrees

LIFE AND LIVING

Eleanor's Kitchen - Great Czech Web Recipes

Live Chat

Well organized Chat Room in the Czech Republic.  Join it.

ISSUES

Education to Prevent a Race War - SITE DOWN

"About two hundred thousand of the ten million inhabitants of the Czech Republic are Romanies. Only about a quarter of them are employed. The others live on the dole or receive other forms of social welfare. The high rate of unemployment among Romanies and their different life style have led to animosity on the part of the white majority: long-term sociological research has registered three-quarters of the population as feeling aversion towards Romanies. This situation cannot be changed by increased efforts to promote toleration on the side of the white majority alone. Romany leaders agree that the Romanies themselves must take the initiative and start working on their integration into the larger society. One way to do this is through education."

National Minorities in the Czech Republic

Background and current efforts on a long-term and sensitive challenge.

  GERMANY:    What Happened to the DDR?

To focus on the former East Germany (the DDR) through the Internet has major limitations. Germany has hundreds of Web sites and many give openings to the present in the DDR. The past remains somewhat Web elusive and must be book-and article-focused. How remarkable it was to stand in Berlin as the Wall came down.  I had been in East Germany many times in the Sixties and Seventies doing research on the concentration camps, visiting all the East German camps (always accompanied by a member of the Stashi from morning to night).  I paid the Security Office to be accompanied and was thus able to go to all those camps.  Driving into East Germany from the North,  I spent many nights in East Berlin and twice crossed over to West Berlin.  The Wall and the terrible difference between the two never left my mind.  But when the Wall came down, I spent one day riding back and forth, back and forth on the SBahn and UBahn - and then walking across and over and across and over.  It truly blew my mind.  But I and my students had expected what happened and could not understand why the media and the pundits were so adamant that it would not happen.
I also knew four things:  1) that integration would be much more complex, difficult, and long-time in completion than Kohl admitted; 2) that in the process, my East German friends and colleagues would suffer much - perhaps more than they knew; 3) that my West German friends after the euphoria subsided would grumble and moan about the surtax all would pay to support the integration, and whisper about their "scruffy" brethren; and 4) that the property restitution issue would be almost impossible to resolve in this lifetime.  But the sustaining facts are these:  the East Germans are improving, the West Germans did pay and continue to pay, the process has proceeded, and the full integration will occur.  That reality seems to me to represent one of the major miracles of 20th Century Europe.

SPECIAL PLACES

German leadership wanted to see Berlin as the capital of this new, united Europe. And it has happened! And the German political leadership has been pushing very hard for currency union. The Newsweek Bureau Chief remarked in April, 1998: "It has to do with the German past as much as it does with the German future. The leadership of Germany believes that it has to constantly prove to the rest of Europe that we're not the old Germans. We will never be dangerous to the continent again. And, as a result of that, they say they've got to keep integrating Europe further and further. This whole business of the past creeping up on you all the time is present everywhere in Germany. You've got to credit the West Germans. They did do a lot to acknowledge the past. Children do study the Holocaust and the history of WWII. Certainly, in East Germany, none of this happened because the Communists in East Germany said we were Communists, therefore, we were the good Germans; we were the victims. And the Austrians claimed they were victims too. But the West Germans, at least, acknowledged it. But it's still a very sort of tortured thing."

Germany Information -- German Embassy/German Information Center - SPECIAL SITE

This Week in Germany. Very helpful, factual site. Current news and important back issues. History, culture, the works!

The German 1848 Revolution - 150 Years - and the German-American Dimension: A VERY SPECIAL HISTORICAL SITE

Major symposium. Links to dozens of articles and sites.

Primary Documents: Germany - SPECIAL DOCUMENTS

Important primary documents from the end of the classical world through the 20th Century. Includes Poland statements-1939, WWI, tripartite agreements of Axis powers, Wannsee Protokol, Holocaust, Nazi Era, surrender documents, East Germany. Most in translation.

PANORAMA

Castle Schoebrunn

"Former home to the Habsburg Dynasty, one of the important castles in the German speaking countries. It was here Mozart gave his first concert in 1762. Hundred years later the castle was home to Emperor Franz Josef I and Empress Elisabeth." Tour the castles rooms and gardens.

Deutsche Welle

Comprehensive information on Germany's people, constitution, history, political system. Special sections on politics, business, science and culture.

Germany Alert - Excellent News and Analysis Current Site

The German Way and More

Books, education, religion, people, schools, travel, links to the German Zone of Austria, Germany, Switzerland . Wealth of information, including page of teaching resources. Read about the Autobahn, German beer, TV, banking, movies. Many pages on contemporary Germany.

The Mighty Deutsche Bundesbank

Preussen Lebt Noch!- The Prussia Page

A few pictures and sources, particularly on Pomerania.  Site dedicated to "Prussia's Past and Future."

Page of German Politics

Central, connects to all the parliaments, government.

The Trabi

"The Trabant, affectionally called "Trabi," was one of only two car models available in former East Germany. Typically one ordered the car at age 18 (upon getting a driver's lisence) and then held on to the precious order confirmation for more then ten years before one could call a car ones own. With Germany's reunification the Trabbi became a nostalgic collector's item. Check out the original brochures advertising the car."  "This car, which originally wasn't destined to be a car, created one of the biggest mistakes in automobile history."

GERMAN HISTORY, THEN - THEN THE MARSHALL PLAN

Unity, Justice and Freedom: The German Revolution of 1848-49

"The dream of German unity had been dreamt before. Long before the post-World War II division of Europe and long before 'silent revolutions' in Eastern Europe ended that division, there was another time when Germans took to the streets to demand freedom and unity and for a few months seemed to achieve their goal. This month in today's free and united Germany, its citizens recall and honor those revolutionaries of 1848. And by the same token, they reflect on how their history might have been changed if the revolution of 1848 had achieved its aims.

Germany before 1848 was fragmented and retained much of the feudal system. It was a place of many large and small principalities, many of them ruled by absolute sovereigns; it seethed with territorial rivalries and conflicting interests. Its people were the aristocracy and the downtrodden masses of peasants and land workers, as well as tradesmen, craftsmen and small shop owners.

The revolution of 1848/49 remains a pivotal moment in German history and it is far from forgotten."

The German Revolutions of 1848 - SITE KAPUT

Important article. "The long-term consequences of the failed revolution lasted well into this century. The 1848 revolution represented a great opportunity to adapt the political power structure to the changed economic realities. But it was not to be. The Prussian bourgeoisie put up one more challenge to the Junker rule in the Constitutional Conflict from 1862-66. But it was defeated once again, this time by Otto von Bismarck, chief minister in Prussia since 1862. And when this same man proclaimed William I German Emperor on January 18, 1871, the path was set for Prussia-Germany to develop economically into the most advanced country in Europe which was governed by a pre-industrial, agrarian, and noble elite that was painfully aware that time was not on its side."  

1848 Revolution:  A German Perspective

Vital article. "Looking back at these events, one might wonder how much different those 150 years of German history might have been if the German Revolution had been more--well, revolutionary. Can the Forty-Eighters really be accused of failing because they did not resort to more radical methods? What if they had proclaimed a republic and incited followers to overthrow their monarchs following the French example of 1789? Would this have resulted in similar bloodshed and turmoil, or might a democratic United State of Germany have evolved? What remains is the memory of the many honorable citizens who espoused noble ideas in the best of German traditions even though, through no fault of their own, they lacked the political skill to implement them."

The German Forty-Eighters in America - 150th Anniversary Assessment

"The Forty-eighters, as they are generally called, contributed to American life a large number of individuals of whom every American can be proud. This interaction of the German emigre group on American life and on the American background on them constitutes a fascinating and an unusually fortunate moment in history."

History of Pomerania
The Marshall Plan, 1947-1997:  A German View- SITE NO LONGER UP

By Susan Stern. "That the Marshall Plan is still very much alive in the minds of ordinary people 50 years after it was announced is quite remarkable. Without the Marshall Plan, what would have happened to Europe, and indeed the world, in the aftermath of World War II? What direction might the East-West conflict have taken? The Marshall Plan is one of the most visionary Plans history has known, a landmark in the aid annals, and it brought huge returns to all involved - to the benefactor, the United States, and to the beneficiaries, the countries of western Europe. And perhaps most of all to West Germany."

The Marshall Plan - US Exhibit

"As the war-torn nations of Europe faced famine and economic crisis in the wake of World War II, the United States proposed to rebuild the continent in the interest of political stability and a healthy world economy. On June 5, 1947, in a commencement address at Harvard University, Secretary of State George C. Marshall first called for American assistance in restoring the economic infrastructure of Europe. Western Europe responded favorably, and the Truman administration proposed legislation. The resulting Economic Cooperation Act of 1948 restored European agricultural and industrial productivity. Credited with preventing famine and political chaos, the plan later earned General Marshall a Nobel Peace Prize."  Here is the document.  Then click to the famous speech.

For European Recovery: The Fiftieth Anniversary of the Marshall Plan

A Survey of the Marshall Plan and its Consequences."The history of the Marshall Plan remains as astonishing for those who already know it as for those who discover it for the first time." Interesting, important essay.

NAZI GOLD, RESTITUTION, WAR CLAIMS

The Internet is filled with this information.  Simply go to Google and search.  

FOREIGN POLICY

The Foreign Office of the Federal Republic

German Aid to Bosnia - SITE GONE

Important, extensive, article. Clearly, without Germany, whatever the controversies, republics in the former Yugoslavia would not be free, and Bosnia would not be on the road to recovery.  Milosevic would have won, with Karadicz and Mladic standing by his side, smiling. "A strong supporter of the peace process in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany has sent some of its best people to the region and contributed roughly $11.5 billion in financial aid. Over the course of the Bosnian war, Germany opened its doors to about 350,000 refugees, more than all other western nations together, and provided them with shelter and assistance. After the Dayton Peace Accords were signed, many Germans went to Bosnia to help with implementation. In addition to German troops in Bosnia maintaining the peace and securing a safe environment, police officers, diplomats, members of parliament and technical experts were among those who brought their skills to the country, training local police, ensuring fair elections, coordinating civilian efforts and mediating disputes. Financial aid from Germany is being used to rebuild the country's economy, meet the needs of returning refugees, particularly for housing, and intesify efforts to reestablish trust between different ethnic communities."

The German-Czech Declaration of Reconciliation, January 1997

Official document contains some very surprising and disappointing parts.  The "both sides" stuff is fairly nauseating. Here is a taste. "In the document, Germany acknowledges responsibility for its role in developments that led to the 1938 Munich Agreement and the forcible breakup and occupation of Czechoslovakia. The Czech Republic regrets the forcible expulsion of the Sudeten Germans and particularly the excesses that contradicted humanitarian principles. Both sides regret the suffering inflicted upon innocent people."

Holocaust Education in Germany

Excellent summary of the wide ranging efforts Germany has taken - more than any other country in the world - which is unfortunate and dangerous considering the actis of both aggression and indifference by every nation in the world.

German Restitution for National Socialist Crimes, January 1998

Remarkable, highly commendable effort, considering all the other countries that have done nothing, including, of course, Switzerland.

German Unification - Five Years On
"Five years of unification have resulted in neither economic miracles nor social catastrophes. Rebuilding the eastern German economy has been more difficult than optimists had expected, and deep-seated differences in outlook more enduring. The eastern economy has, however, rebounded, and the economic disparities between the two halves of the country are narrowing. More importantly, there are also unmistakable signs that easterners and westerners alike are coming to terms with the unprecedented social and political situation created by unification. Unification remains a process still underway, but a process whose benefits are steadily outweighing its burdens. The ongoing process of unification will continue to reshape Germany through the rest of the decade. Much remains to be done in bridging the gaps between the two halves of the country. Reducing unemployment in the east and bringing its environmental infrastructure up to the level of the west's, for example, will take time and money. But having weathered the economic collapse of eastern Germany and the deep recession of the early 1990s, Germany stands well-positioned on the fifth anniversary of unification to address the tremendous challenges that remain."

BERLIN, THE WALL, THE AIRLIFT

Berlin Information Page

All you ever wanted to know. Includes detailed tour.

A Concrete Curtain - The Life and Death of the Berlin Wall

Excellent photo exhibition and history of the Berlin Wall sponsored by the Caen Memorial and the Deutsches Historisches Museum of Berlin.

The Rise and Fall of the Berlin Wall

Interactive exhibit on news coverage of the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 to its destruction in 1989.

German Internet Project: The Berlin Wall 1961-1989  - Dated but a Few Good Sites

The Vanishing Wall

Excellent summary links to history of Berlin Wall, its destruction, its importance.

Web Photo Exhibition - The Berlin Wall

Splendid

The Berlin Wall.

Background information on the Berlin Wall. Discusses the reasons the wall was erected, the construction process, its dimensions, its dismantling in 1989.

Berlin Wall - Comprehensive List From All Vantages

Freie Universitaet Berlin

Humboldt-Universitaet

Berlin Airlift Veterans Association

Airlift history, President Truman, Generals Clay and LeMay, week by week history, stories."In 1948, 50 years ago, Germany's capital Berlin was cut off from the outside world by a Russian blockade.  In an unprecedented effort, Berliners were supplied over the air for 462 days. During that time the men and women assigned to the airlift conducted over 250,000 flights that delivered more then 2 million tons of food and supplies to Berliners. Without this ingenious and heroic effort, Berlin would not have  survived that year. The original members off the airlift have put together a Web page with history, photographs and personal accounts."

US Air Force Berlin Airlift Site

Facts, photos, history.

  HUNGARY:    Land of Swiftly Changing Borders

Hungary has made the greatest progress along with the Czech Republic and Poland. Its rich history is perceptible through these sites. Smaller than Indiana, Hungary has so much variety, it seems larger. Already on the road to economic reform before the revolution, it also has always seemed somewhat freer to me for the past 30 years, as I have come in from other countries - especially Romania. Lake Balaton for years has been my favorite sailing lake.
As most know, Hungary is one of those countries in the past century whose borders have changed overnight, depending on the way the world's wind blows. Typically, one friend's family over the past 3 generations has changed its nationality 6 times living in the same house. Americans would have a difficult time with this concept, particularly as changing nationalities meant forcibly changing language and often religion. An Hungarian writer says it well (if slanted).  "This small country is one of the great survivors of history:  states and empires emerged, expanded or disintegrated and disappeared abound it. Hungary and the Hungarian nation survived the devastation of the Tartars and Turks, Habsburgs and Russians in the Carpathian Basin; survive