THE "MIDDLE" CENTURIES OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION FROM BYZANTIUM TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Central Site Return Above

THE "BIG EIGHT" VERY SPECIAL PAGES - For Part I

Odin's Castle of Dreams & Legends - SPECIAL CREATIVITY

Archive of History and Historical Resources. "Welcome to Odin's Castle of Dreams & Legends. The pages that follow are dedicated to those of you who have, as I have, dreamed the dream, or longed for the days of long, long ago. . .   A misty, mysterious time full of heroes, romance, chivalry, and legends."  Dawn of Man to Ancient Times. Gods, Goddesses, Vikings, Mongols.  Dark Ages to Renaissance. King Arthur, Robin Hood, Crusades, Religion. Ships, and Sea. The Great Wars.  History of Science and Medicine, resources for educators, students, reenactors.  This site is like a whirlpool that can suck up a lot of your time!

Grover Furr's Medieval History and Literature Page - SPECIAL LINKS

Essential resource links located on this web site! Basic Medieval Resources on the Web, Chaucer, Middle English and Other Medieval Literatures, Journals and Criticism, History, Art, Music, and Culture. Medieval History Course by Paul Halsall of Fordham University presenting an excellent course outline summarizing "The End of the Classical World to the Later Middle Ages." If you can't find what you're browsing for on our fantastic site, Mr. Furr's reference of links is a great option.

Mad Monarch Series - SPECIAL ROYALTY

"Series of short biographies of the personal lives of history's mad monarchs, sadistic Sultans, terrible Tsars, crazy caesars, deranged dukes." Thoughtful examination of peculiar behavior patterns and little known physical handicaps of royalty from antiquity to the 1800's. Beats 90210 or Melrose Place by a wide margin and proves truth is definitely stranger than fiction.

Welcome to the Middle Ages:  A SPECIAL HIGH SCHOOL EFFORT

Index of Materials, books, sites on the Middle Ages.  Great series on armor. Banners, Calendar, Cathedrals, Common People, Crusades Songs, Dances, Football, Fortune and Her Wheel, Humanism, Knights, Marriage Customs, Plague. Newspaper-Style Articles with Headlines: Beckett Dies, Black Death Spreads, The Plague: Will it Ever End?, Anti-Semitic Feelings During the Middle Ages, Children Hurled At Walls, Order of the Garter Formed. People such as Bernard, Chaucer, Charlemagne, Dante, Petrarch. Stunning site created by the Timpview High School Ancient History Class.

The Tome of Adventure and Knowledge

SO OUTSTANDING AND COMPREHENSIVE.  Cannot think of any "Middle Period" category left untouched.

The Witching Hours - SPECIAL INVESTIGATIVE

Twelfth - eighteenth centuries ." The early modern period was a time in which being a woman could be a crime in and of itself - a crime often punishable by death." Serious investigative site that leaves no stone unturned. Comprehensive, passionate and artistically presented."Documents of the Witch Craze, Magic, Spells, and Potions, Modern Parallels, People of the Witchcraze, Punishment, Torture, and Ordeal, Traits of the Witches.

Dominion and Domination of the Gentler Sex:  The Lives of Medeval Women - SPECIAL SITE

"They were wives and writers, lovers and soldiers, mothers and midwives, scientists and traders. The day-to-day lives of medieval women of all classes and callings are often glossed over in modern history courses in favor of sequences of events. Not so here. This is the CITY OF WOMEN." Web-city highlights the roles, so often invisible, of medieval women. "So how much DO you know about medieval women? Take the quiz and find out.
VISIT THE CITY Take a tour to examine the roles -- predictable and unexpected -- of medieval women.  Inside a medieval walled city, . . . noisy and smelly. . . Streets were pitch-black at night and watchmen and thieves patrolled the streets."  
THE DISTAFF SIDE:  "Women and the circumstances of birth, childhood, marriage, and death. Women and religion in the Middle Ages -- mystics, monastics, and anchorites."

THE MARKETPLACE and THE ARMORY:  "Women were invaluable to medieval economics. Focus on women in businesses of all sizes. AND Medieval women were soldiers long before the WAACs. Whether as defenders, commanders, or mercenaries, women made their mark on medieval warfare."

THREADNEEDLE STREET and THE APOTHECARY:  "The fashion center of the City of Women. Here you can see fashion hits from the 11th to the 14th Centuries as well as the latest from the 15th. Information on medicine, science, and witchcraft.

THE ARTS:  "From famous writers to nameless actors, many contributors to the medieval art scene were women, who created literature, music, theatre, dance, and visual art."

BIOGRAPHIES: "General information about the lives of medieval women in various occupations," and information about specific women. This very special site created by members of ThinkQuest Team.

THE EARLY AND/OR THE DARK DAYS The Barbarians are Coming

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

THE EMERGING WORLD OF LORDS AND VASSALS -Knights and Chivalry

LEADERS, GOVERNMENT, STRUCTURE Charlemagne, Feudalism, Castles

A STRUGGLE FOR MAN,GOD,SOULS - The Early Church SAINTS, SINNERS, MONKS, CATHEDRALS, CHAPELS, CHURCHES, GOTHIC, GARGOYLES, THE CRUSADES

BRITANNIA

BAD THINGS HAPPEN TO GOOD PEOPLE THE PLAGUE, INQUISITION AND HERESIES, MEDIEVAL WITCHCRAFT

THE MIDDLE TIMES

A FEW WARS AND THE MILITARY

POPES, SCHISMS, INQUISITION

LEADERS:  MYTH AND REALITY

ART AND LITERATURE

THE INVALUABLE SOURCES

TO PART II AND ONLINE COURSES

BOOKS, BOOKS, BOOKS ON THE MIDDLE CENTURIES HERE

TO PART II:  SECOND WEB PAGE HERE-->   RENAISSANCE FORWARD

THE AGE OF DISCOVERY

THE REFORMATION

WARS OF RELIGION

ELIZABETH AND PHILIP

LIFE AND TIMES

ABSOLUTISM AND MONARCHY

ECONOMICS, CULTURE, SCIENCE

THE 18TH CENTURY: AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

"THE BARBARIANS ARE COMING - AND THE "DARK AGES"
"In the aftermath of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, a new era began in Europe and the Mediterranean world. The ancient certainties of the Pax Romana lay in ruins and while the eastern emperors, ruling from Constantinople, kept the light of Roman civilisation burning, in the west that light flickered and almost... almost, went out. And so began the period of European history known as the Dark Ages, when out of the ruins of the Western Empire grew a number of new successor kingdoms, ruled over by the barbarian, usually Germanic, peoples who inherited it. For the barbarians, this new settlement was the culmination of a period of defeat, migration and conquest know as the Völkerwanderung - the 'Wandering of the Peoples."

VIKINGS

The Beginning of the Viking Age

"Historical ages are seldom pinned down to specific dates like the Viking Age. Usually, the influence of one group over the history of another is gradual, spread out over a few decades or hundreds of years. But the change in how the Vikings dealt with others in Europe can be pinned down to a single event, an attack on a monastery in England, and is widely accepted as the start of the Viking Age."

Who Were The Vikings?

"In Norse, víking means piracy, and for centuries, ever since Viking raiders savagely attacked England's Lindisfarne monastery in A.D. 793 -- the Vikings have seemed to have been little more than blue-eyed barbarians in horned helmets. But archeological investigations of Viking sites stretching from Russia to Newfoundland have revealed a more human (if not altogether humane) side to the Viking character. Interview with NOVA  and the curator of exhibit on Vikings at the Smithsonian." Explore a Viking village.   Secrets of Norse ships,  diaspora.  Write your name in Runes.  Build Tree-Ring timeline.  

ULTIMATE Barbarian Page!

"Quickly displacing or assimilating the indigents of the regions they entered, they never truly settled anywhere, ever-moving as their needs and resources changed. Eventually they did settle, . . . yet their culture was never elaborate. Those  with whom they came in contact considered them uncivilized, and yet were fascinated by their strength, stamina, force of will, charisma, and versatility. Respected by those they befriended, and feared by those who opposed them. Even within their own society, they fought amongst themselves, seeking supremacy of power and controllership of the lands they acquired." Who were these people and why were they called barbarians and looked down upon? History of Celtic/Germanic peoples and their spread throughout Europe. Maps, who's who, literary works, role-playing games, religious practices, historical resources.

Viking Answer Lady Webpage

Definition of Viking. Timeline of Viking history. Reaction towards Vikings. Viking lifestyle: foods, clothing, recreation, pets and animals, marriage and divorce, and homosexuality. Ships and navigation. Armament, the Berserker (an elite warrior), and feuds and duels. Poetry, religion, and exploits.  And see The BBC Viking Collection Vignettes on interesting areas of Viking life: Religion, Coins, Women, A Typical Day, Warfare, Why Britain, Legacy."

Museums of the Vikings

"Reconstruction of a Viking cheiftain's homestead. Walk around in an area which brings you more than a thousand years back in time.  Take a closer look at how the Vikings lived in a very important period of Norwegian history. See reconstructed buildings, peaceful domestic animals eating grass outside and a reconstruction of a Viking ship by the sea. Not hard to imagine yourself almost 14 hundred years back in time when you feel the atmosphere in this museum."  And HERE.

TRANSFORMATION OF ROMAN WORLD:  ROLE OF THE GERMANIC PEOPLES

The Peoples of the Dark Ages

Comprehensive site examining origins of various tribes of Dark Ages and their battle for the remnants of the collapsing Roman Empire.

Origin and Deeds of the Goths

Extensive, fascinating narrative relating to origins and history of the Goths as recorded by ancient historian, Jordanes - believed to be a Christian of Germanic origin, possibly a bishop, writing at Constantinople in 551 or 552 A. D.

The History Channel Barbarian Site

The 2004 four-part History channel outstanding programs on the barbarians is better than anything on the internet.  The Vikings, Goths, Mongols, Huns.  Seeing is believing!

The Realm of the Mongols - Summary and Links to Everything Mongol!  

"ANCIENT" AND "OLD" BRITAIN
CELTS, SAXONS, DRUIDS, PICTS

The Celtic Heart

"Only...with the closing of the lips of the last mortal who preserved his tradition can the life of a god be truly said to end." "...History is written by those who have hanged heros." -- Opening narration in Braveheart.  "Art is the history of men's souls." Celtic Gateway into the mysterious past of the ancient Celtic people.  Powerful images assist in documenting fascinating chronicles of the Celts. Overflowing with all things Celtic, from their ancient languages to their spiritual art. Outstanding compilation of material. Abundant samples of Celtic music and manuscripts, reference materials.

The Celts - From Brown University - Summaries

A Celtic Pantheon

"Reference guide for students of Celtic mythology."  Collection of Celtic deities of the Irish, Scottish, Welsh and Manx people. Embodies true spirit of the Celtic heart. Depicts characteristics, peculiarities, thoughts, appearance and other relevant info on each deity. Religious connotations, sphere of influence and tales of  ancient deities.  Excellent resource for quick information.  See also Celtic Law - A Compilation of Triads for traditional laws, customs, and wisdoms of the pre-Christian Celtic people of what is now known as Scotland, Wales, And Ireland. And Druids - An Exploration of the Order for investigation of the mysterious wisemen of the Celtic world. Who were the Druids? Where did they come from?

Pictish Nation

"Picts who once raided Roman Britain, defeated the Angle-Saxon invaders and in one of the great mysteries of the ancient world, disappeared as a separate people by the end of the tenth century. . . For many centuries they represented the unbridled fury of a people who refused to be brought under the yoke of Rome or any foreign invader. . . Nagging story of an obscure intrigue leading to genocide of a people, its customs, culture, laws and art." "It is in the sculptured stones of Scotland, left behind by the Pictish and proto-Pictish people of ancient Alba and present day Scotland that we can find some information about a mighty race of people who defied and defeated Rome and who slaughtered the invincible barbarian hordes of Angles Germans and hammered the invading Vikings back home thus forever preserving a separate culture and race in Scotland."

KING ARTHUR, CAMELOT, KNIGHTS, CHIVALRY, THE HOLY GRIAL

Arthurian Archaeology

Examines archaeological evidence from the time of Arthurian legends to establish if King Arthur is a fantasy or a reality. Summarizes discoveries from the traditional Arthurian archaeological sites. "Cadbury was inhabited as a military strong hold, in the Dark Ages, in Britain. What is proven is that the site [Camelot] was used for what it was supposed to be used for at the right period in British history."  In The Real Camelot, Darrah writes, "The truth is however, that attempts to identify 'Camelot' are pointless. The name and the very concept of 'Camelot' are inventions of the French Medieval poets."  "There is a tendency in our society, to romanticize the past, to mystify it to suit our own imaginations and to fit our own conceptions of what we thought it must have been like."  But, the King Arthur of Camelot and other popular literary works did not exist. Fascinating look into how historical text and archaeology can assist in uncovering the truth about a legend. Impressive bibliography of Arthurian texts.

Camelot International Core Site

The Legend of Camelot, Heritage, Royalty, Vacations, Camelot Village, Hot Gossip UK,  History of the World, Great Ideas, Roots, Post Office & Merlin Search. Click on Heritage to get beautiful photographs of the inside of castles with detailed information, historic treasures of British and Irish heritage. Splendid indeed! Links to Royal Families of World History, Kings and Queens of British Royal history, Arthurian legend, World History. You can even trace your roots! Excellent site.

The Dark Ages - King Arthur and Others

"The Arthurian Legend has survived over 1,000 years by adapting to the times."

Introduction to Current Theories about The Holy Grail.

Collection of theories concerning the Holy Grail and what it could be.

Merrie Haskell's King Arthur Page

Ennumerates "many of the relevant details of the Arthurian legend." Brief recounting of the Arthurian legend. Primary sources. Religion of the time. Historical info on alleged birthplace of Arthur, Stonehenge, and the Picts. Bio on several legendary characters. Bibliograpy.

BYZANTIUM
They called it "the second Rome."  A great city astride Europe and Asia and its vast empire which would preserve Greco-Roman culture and transmit it to the West, when Rome itself lay in barbarian hands.  It became the center of the trading world and the focus of Christianity.  Constantinople held the historic function "as the outpost of Europe against the invading hordes of Asia.  Under the shelter of that defense of its eastern gateway, western Europe could refashion its own life; and it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the civilization of western Europe is a by-product of the will of the Byzantine Empire to survive."

Byzantine Studies Page

One of the best Byzantine Studies pages. A Gateway. Text, audio and visual. Comprehensive links to array of topics such as art, religious and historical images. Listen to Byzantine music. Paleontology, reference documents on Byzantine Culture. "Byzantium is the name given to both the state and the culture of the Eastern Roman Empire in the middle ages. Both the state and the inhabitants always called themselves Roman, as did most of their neighbors. Western Europeans, who had their own Roman Empire called them Orientals or Greeks... The composite nature of Byzantium. It was, without any doubt, the continuation of the Roman state, and until the seventh century, preserved the basic structures of Late Roman Mediterranean civic culture: - a large multi-ethnic Christian state, based on a network of urban centers, and defended by a mobile specialized army.

Byzantine civilization constitutes a major world culture. Because of its unique position as the medieval continuation of the Roman State, it has tended to be dismissed by classicists and ignored by Western medievalists. Its internal elite culture was archaicizing and perhaps pessimistic. But we should not be deceived. As the centrally located culture, and by far the most stable state, of the Medieval period, Byzantium is of major interest both in itself, and because the development and late history of Western European, Slavic and Islamic cultures are not comprehensible without taking it into consideration.

Early Byzantine Period: The 'First Golden Age' of Byzantium (324­730)

"We begin our story about the history of Romiosini or the Greek Middle ages with the founding of Constantinople, the capital city of the Eastern Roman Empire." The foundation of Christianity. "The Christianized eastern part of the Roman Empire, or Byzantium, as it came to be called, continued for another 1100 years. A vital figure in its earliest years was the first Christian Roman emperor, Constantine the Great (274[?]­337), who established toleration for Christianity throughout the Roman Empire through the Edict of Milan in 313. Constantine legally transferred his capital from Rome to Constantinople, on the site of the Greek city of Byzantium."

Byzantine Empire

Full-bodied history.  "At the distance of many centuries and thousands of miles, the civilization of the Empire presents an appearance of unity. Examined at closer range, however, firstly the geographical content of the empire resolves itself into various local and national divisions, and secondly the growth of the people in civilization reveals several clearly distinguishable periods. Taking root on Eastern soil, flanked on all sides by the most widely dissimilar peoples — Orientals, Finnic-Ugrians and Slavs — some of them dangerous neighbours just beyond the border, others settled on Byzantine territory, the empire was loosely connected on the west with the other half of the old Roman Empire. And so the development of Byzantine civilization resulted from three influences: the first Alexandrian-Hellenic, a native product, the second Roman, the third Oriental."

The Land and the Peoples of Byzantium

"The most powerful periods of the Byzantium Empire were years that were stagnant in terms of advancement of thought, but were highly active in terms of religion. It should not be forgotten, however, that it was this highly detailed embroidery of the Middle Ages that was to pave the way for the Renaissance. The struggle between two very great religions, Islam and Christianity, was to lead to the development of Islamic civilization on the one hand, and Byzantine civilization on the other."

Byzantine Historiographical Tradition - Scholarly article by Paul Halsall.

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ISLAM IN MEDIEVAL TIME

Prophet Muhammad

Prophet Muhammad, his biography, his examples and sayings, his last sermon, what he was like and what others say about him. Read about "the last Prophet."

UMAYYADS,The First Muslim Dynasty (661-750)

Concise history of the Umayyads, including a "family tree" showing the genealogy.    links which define the various tribes and caliphs.

KNIGHTS AND CHIVALRY

Chivalric Orders

Stupendous site containing details and history of the Orders of Knighthood of Chivalric character, who are still awarded today! Each order has it's own page dedicated to it's history. Spectacular and detailed graphics and pictures! Also links to related sites of chivalric orders.

The Chivalry Code

Chivalry, Knights and the Feudal System

A History and Mythos of the Knights Templar

Who were they?  Excellent historical summary clarifies: "A monastic military order formed at the end of the First Crusade to protect pilgrims traveling on route from Europe to the recently captured city of Jerusalem. Within a couple of decades the group became an order with the backing of both the Pope and the collective European monarchies. . . Within two centuries they had become powerful enough to defy all but the Papal throne. Feared as warriors, respected for their piety and sought out for their wealth, there is no doubt that the Knights Templar were the key players of the monastic fighting orders. Due to their vast wealth, the Templars essentially invented banking as we know it. "   The power, the turbulence, the hostility and the accusations against them.  Documents. history, myths, warrior monks, the Masonic connection, the Grand Masters, crusades, web rings.    The people and groups that influenced the Knights Templar such as Philip IV (The Fair), Pope Clement V, Bernard of Clairveux, The Grand Masters, Urban II.  Mysteries of the Knights include these questions:  "Do The Templars Still Exist Today? How Did a Band of Nine Knights Gain Such Fame? Is The Shroud Of Turin Actually The Face Of De Molay? What Was The Bearded Head Worshipped By The Templars? Did The Templars Practice Black Magic? "

The Knights Templar

Why were the Knights Templar burned as heretics? Were they truly demon worshipers and homosexuals or were all accusations a plot to rid the empire of this powerful and influential order? What caused different orders of knights to feud with one another? For anyone interested in the orders of knights formed during the Crusades. Large set of links here.

Knighthood, Chivalry & Tournaments Resource Library

Modern chivalry, tournaments, arms. Reenactments and reproductions. Magna Carta text. Accounts of medieval battles. Medieval writing on English coronation ceremony. Medieval oaths. Glossaries of terms. Produced with the passion of a true enthusiast pertaining to elements of medieval  war and games.

Knights Hospitaller of St. John

"Being an unofficial guide to the chivalric Hospitaller Orders, especially the Order of St. John of Jerusalem,   from the First Crusade to the present era."  Order began in 11th Century "as a monastic brotherhood caring for the needs of Latin pilgrims in the Holy Land. . . .Inevitably, as the Crusader States found themselves in a condition of perpetual war, the brethren of the Order were soon found serving as medics and then as combatants, becoming (with their rivals the Knights Templar) the most disciplined Christian military force in Outremer and the medieval equivalent of a multinational corporation."

THE LIFE OF CHARLEMAGNE

Carolingians and After

Rise of Carolingian Dynasty and Papal support.  Charlemagne's reign consumed with wars in which he was usually victorious. Most important - the conquest of the Saxons and the Lombards bringing much of Germany and Italy into the circles of Holy Roman Empire and medieval civilization. Carolingian Decline and Division of the Empire to Louis the Pious.

Charles Martel and the Rise of the Carolingians

"But notwithstanding the almost exclusively warlike character of his reign, Charles Martel was not indifferent to the superior interests of civilization and Christianity. Like Napoleon after the French Revolution, upon emerging from the years 715-719, Charles, who had not only tolerated but perpetrated many an act of violence against the Church, set about the establishment of social order and endeavoured to restore the rights of the Catholic hierarchy."

The Charlemagne Map

Charlemagne

"Coronation of Charlemagne as emperor goes beyond the conflict between Church and state. It is a symbolic event, a convenient point to gather some separate threads." Nice, simple list format follows Charlemagne's life and ruling aspects. Explains cultural significance of various events. Good background and future references. Audio soundbites.  And who was he? Charlemagne (742-814), or Charles the Great, was the most famous ruler of the Middle Ages and a key figure in European history. He conquered much of western Europe and united it under a great empire. "Charlemagne revived the political and cultural life of Europe, which had collapsed after the fall of the West Roman Empire in the A.D. 400's. His activities laid the foundation of the European civilization that arose during the later Middle Ages." .

Charlemagne - A Capsul Summary 

Charlemagne - Charles the Great, King of the Franks and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire

"He was so moderate in the use of wine and all sorts of drink that he rarely allowed himself more than three cups in the course of a meal. In summer after the midday meal, he would eat some fruit, drain a single cup, put off his clothes and shoes, just as he did for the night, and rest for two or three hours." Life of Charlemagne, written by Charlemagne's traveling companion and monk, Einhard. First-hand diary account adds more of a "personal touch" to the understanding of Charlemagne. Humorous "stream of consciousness" commentary by Einhard. Timelines, maps, story behind the "Song of Roland." Here Quote Page!

Founder of the Holy Roman Empire

"Charlemagne was born on April 2, 742 in Northern Europe. 'By the sword and the cross,' he became master of Western Europe. Through his enlightened leadership the roots of learning and order were restored to Medieval Europe." Overview of Charlemagne and his incredible life as ruler of the Franks. Outlines his accomplishments, including his unionization of the Old Roman Empire, marriage of church and state and restoration of Papal states.

The Reign of Charlemagne, "The Revolt of The West"

Carolingian empire began when rivals were engaged elsewhere.  Describes the character of the Carolingian Regime with limitations and solutions. Charlemagne recreates the power, prestige, and culture of the Western Roman Empire. Consequences of Charlemagne's coronation became one of most important forces in Medieval Europe.

FEUDALISM

Feugalism and Feudal Institutions

"Feudalism is a method of government, and a way of securing the forces necessary to preserve that method of government. It is also an extreme form of decentralization. There many centers of power. Power does not reside at a center, or at the top, even though there a pyramidal structure in theory, with the emperor at the top and the simple knight at the bottom. In other words, feudalism is rather more complex than it appears to be on paper."  "In the Middle Ages, networks of personal agreements formed the basis of the political, economic and social systems. How these agreements developed and how they were utilised during the early Middle Ages are currently topics of scholarly debate. Nevertheless, by the late Middle Ages, the terminology and concepts that are implied in the designation of a feudal society had been defined by the legal profession." 

Feudalism and the Military Elite

"Feudalism - a situation where there is no dominant political power or effective central leadership - no state or empire. Local leaders control political decisions, command the military power, have the controlling economic power and even dominate in the cultural realm. In a feudal society, power is treated as private possession; there is no effective state. Feudalism is a military based society. In feudal Europe, military might was the primary basis of power. The dominant leaders based their top status on their ability to command this military elite. The very culture of Europe during this period was military in nature - a warrior code.  The glue that holds the society together is not a written law or formal bureaucratic system . Nor is there a formal economic system; this collapses in the absence of central political control. Instead, a number of complex social relationships tie the society together. A world where oaths and obligations, vows and promises and established expectations and customs provide the only stability possible. Loyalty to others and fulfilling one's oaths are the most important values in a feudal society. If these ties break down - anarchy."

Feudal Terminology - Feudalism was NOT a term used in the Middle Ages!

Over 130 feudal terms providing an essential resource to undergraduate students. Feudalism, the system of government based on ownership of land as it was practiced in Europe in the Middle Ages. Terms relating to the ebb and flow of daily feudal life, reflecting its poverty and brutality. Entries expose with luminous clarity the structure of power in European Society during the medieval era. Comprehensive reference for academics, intellectuals and students. Includes explanations of words and phrases where meanings have changed or lost through time. Valuable online companion.

Medieval Sourcebook: Crisis? Collapse? Recovery? Feudalism?

Short piece regarding the term feudalism and what it is supposed to mean. Historians are recently challenging the modern popular usage of the term as well as the meaning that 20th century professional medievalists have come to give it. Rather interesting on how we look back and try to explain our history.  Range of original sources.

The Feudal System

The Feudal System was introduced to England following the invasion and conquest of the country by William I (The Conqueror). The system had been used in France by the Normans from the time they first settled there in about 900AD. It was a simple, but effective system, where all land was owned by the King. One quarter was kept by the King as his personal property, some was given to the church and the rest was leased out under strict controls."  Good basic summaryand great organization charts.

CASTLES

Castle and Siege Terminology

English definitions for over 70 entries pertaining to Medieval castles and siege terminology. Univ. Mississippi's Department of English clear and comprehensive reference. Covers terms commonly used in undergraduate studies of Medieval history. Includes explanations of words and phrases where meanings have changed or lost through time.

Castle Quest

Online, interactive fantasy game. "Your friends and loved ones can only hope that luck be your ally as you begin this noble quest from deep within the heart of a kingdom long since forgotten, to a destiny unknown."

XCastles of Britain

"What is a castle? A castle is a properly fortified military residence. Why were castles built? Initially, they were designed and built to hold down conquered territory. They also served to intimidate and strike fear into the local peoples, were places of refuge, and places for the lords to live. They were also impressive symbols of the power and wealth of their owners." Special castle learning-center, all the major castles and information on them in Britain. About Castles, Birds Eye Views, Building a Castle, Drawings, Dungeons, Food, Furnishings, Gatehouses, Images, King Edward l, Kitchens , Knights, License, Life in a Castle, Medieval Jobs, Parts of a Castle, Towers.

Castles of Germany

"The castles which are today such an unmistakable feature of the Rhein landscape date back to the Middle Ages. Their founders were feudal overlords, who, so far from cherishing any romantic notions, built them with one simple aim in mind: to protect their lands from marauders and predatory neighbors. They chose mountain-tops as strategically ideal situations based on the warlike function for which they were built and the back-breaking labour of the feudal serfs." Roadtrip journal of castles from Cologne to Mainz. Maps, timelines, histories, photos, art. Interactive tour map of Heidelberg's castle.

Castles of Scotland

"Still the blood is strong, and the heart is Highland...." This caption concludes each page of a number of Scottish castles. Many interesting backgrounds to the castles that grace the land in Scotland, including Balmoral.  Some pictures are "divine" and definitely worthy as computer wallpaper. Anyone considering a trip to Scotland should check out this site for its links and information regarding travel and tourism in Scotland.

Castles of Wales

Last bastion of the ethnic Briton, Wales is known as the "land of castles."  Not your usual site. Photos and info on more than 400 different castles. All information also translated into Welsh dialect. Welsh national pride jumps off every page. Pertinent to contemporary Welsh attempts to "devolve" (secede) from Great Britain.

Castles on the Web

Search and tour individual Castles from around the world - from Austria to Yugoslavia. Palaces and Great Homes, Abbeys and Churches, Abbeys and Churches, Castles for Kids, books, glossary, myths and legends from Arthur to Robin Hood.  For a castle or palace to stay in, you can click to info.

The English Medieval Castle - Tight Summary and Background From Britannia

Ghosts in the Castle

From National Geog. -Kids but fun for grownups also.  "Castle dwellers still haunt these halls.  Click on them to learn their secrets."

Island Castles - Medieval Fortresses of Great Britain

"When William the Conqueror and his Norman army successfully invaded England in 1066 A.D., they were viewed by the local English population as aliens. The Norman occupation however, was destined to last for centuries and would waste no time in introducing the English people to feudalism. A key instrument in the enforcement of the new feudal system was the castle. Before 1066 most English fortifications followed the lines of the old Roman works and the Saxon burghs. These public projects had formerly offered general protection to whole villages and towns. The new order called for heavily fortified private strong points which would intimidate the local civilians into a more passive role." Photographs, explanation of old Norman castles at York, Edinburgh, Windsor, and the Tower of London.

Life in a Medieval Castle - In this clear description, does not sound very appealing

Medieval Fiefdom

Well organized with topics on castles in every respect. Interworkings, design, structure, rooms, uses, and the seige. Also medieval society with excellent descriptions on each class and profession.  Society, people, way of life.

Schoenbrunn Palace

Virtual tour of this historic castle in Austria.

A STRUGGLE FOR GOD, MAN, AND SOULS - THE EARLY CHURCH

SAINTS, SINNERS, MONKS AND THEIR MISSIONS

Safe Haven - St. Augustine

"Saint Augustine was one of the foremost philosopher-theologians of early Christianity and the leading figure in the church of North Africa. He had a profound influence on the subsequent development of Western thought and culture, and shaped the themes and defined the problems that have characterized the Western tradition of Christian theology." Informative account of Augustine's life and his search for a reasonable and plausible religion of which to live by. It wasn't until the age of 32 that Augustine finally "...converted to Christianity and devoted the rest of his life to the pursuit of truth." His many works and teachings.

Augustine

Text heavy. Great page for those interested in Augustine's written works. Both Latin and English (larger amount in Latin). Maps of Carthage, Constantine and Caesarea. Wonderful biography of Augustine's life: "from this decisive return to Carthage can be traced a career to which the adjective 'brilliant' scarcely does justice." Relationship between Augustinian and Greek philosophies.

Augustine: Confessions - the Full Book

Writings of Saint Augustine

"Give me chastity and continence, but not just now." Quotations, letters, Christian Doctrine. Some links may be a little stubborn - but as Saint Augustine would say, "Patience is the companion of wisdom."

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St. Benedict and his Order

"One man whose simple genius remains undimmed to this day: Benedict of Nursia. Not only was he considered the father of Western monks, but he has been called the Co-Patron of Europe, along with Sts. Cyril and Methodius. For the simple reason that, through the influence of his spiritual sons and daughters, Western civilization was nurtured and largely preserved. In fact much of Europe's Christian roots were planted directly or indirectly through the work of the Benedictines, the black monks of legend who named a religious order after their muse." Synopsis of life of St. Benedict. Links to "Rule of St. Benedict" and "The Spirit of Benedictine Life" providing commentaries on the expectations of those called to the monastic life.

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Life of Saint Gregory the Great

Article on the life of Pope Saint Gregory, and how he saved  Christianity during ".. times so frightful that the people who lived in them were sure that the end of the world was come."

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From Jerome to Augustine

"I have had my time, and have run my course to the utmost of my strength." Interesting letter St. Jerome wrote to St. Augustine. Difference in doctrinal opinion is the content. Jerome's old age does not stop him from taking on a young Augustine.

St. Jerome

"Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus), c.347-420, was a Father of the Church and Doctor of the Church, whose great work was the translation of the Bible into Latin, the edition known as the Vulgate (see Bible)."

Saint Jerome

"Jerome was by several accounts a rather bad-tempered, prickly and unpleasant person, who was also unsuccessful when he tried the life of a monk. However, his reputation for disciplined holiness and biblical scholarship has survived over 1,500 years and should be of encouragement to those of us aware of our own unpleasant personal traits and habits. Heaven is populated not with the perfect, but with ordinary people who have tried their best to love God and serve humanity."

Saint Jerome's House

"Legacy of Jerome is staggering, but his most lasting monument was the first comprehensive Latin Bible, which came to be known as the Vulgate."  Friendly perspective of Jerome's contribution to the Bible. His convictions and influence prohibited non-traditional books into the biblical canon.

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Medieval Monasticism

I do not usually include another history course in this Book in detail.  But this one is close to brilliant, by Dr. Deborah Vess of Georgia College and University.   "Forms of religious life in the medieval west, the major contributions of medieval monasticism to medieval and modern culture, and of the major texts which governed medieval monastic life, expressed its fundamental values, and which inform us about patronage and the relationship of the monasteries to the secular world. A journey together into the desert, and through the lives and sayings of the desert hermits  to explore the origins of monasticism; from there, we shall explore the legacy of Benedictine, Cluniac, and Cistercian monasticism, and the new orders of the Central Middle Ages. How European culture was formed and developed out of the peregrinations of such monastics as St. Boniface, St. Columba, and St. Columbanus. The great medievalist Jean Leclerq once described monastic culture,  'as the love of learning and the desire for God,' and we shall explore the legacy of learning which grew out of the monasteries, as well as the impact of the Benedictine motto "Ora et Labora" on the economic, social, and political life of Europe."

Monasticism in Medieval Christianity

"The term "monasticism" (monachos, a solitary person) describes a way of life chosen by religious men or women who retreat from society for the pursuit of spiritual salvation. Though monasteries were landowners from their inception, in the tenth century they began to acquire substantial gifts of cash, precious liturgical objects, land, and livestock. Monasteries, in turn, provided a haven from the world for pious men and women, as well as for social outcasts in need of assistance. One of the major contributions of the monastic members was their achievement in scholarship, providing instrumental books about hymnography, hagiography, and theology. Monastic centers encouraged a fiercely intellectual environment, requiring literacy of brothers and sisters and creating major libraries."  Important site. 

Early Medieval Monasticism

"The monks became the heroes of early medieval Europe for a number of reasons. They had clearly dedicated their lives to the devotion of God. Their lives served as examples for others. They also provided a sense of security in a world that always seemed on the brink of tumult and catastrophe. They founded an organization, the monastery, which allowed them to live communally -- some monks worked the earth, some copied and illuminated manuscripts, while still others read and studied. And, of course, because of their asceticism, the monks became the vehicles of economic and cultural change -- they helped teach medieval Europe to save and invest for the future. Of course, what the monks and their monasteries meant for Europe in, say, 800, meant something vastly different more than 700 years later when the Christian humanist, Erasmus, could write of the monks that "they are so detested that it is considered bad luck if one crosses your path."

Life in a Medieval Monastery

"Monastic life was generally one of hard physical work, scholarship and prayer. Some orders encouraged the presence of "lay brothers", monks who did most of the physical labour in the fields and workshops of the monastery so that the full-fledged monks could concentrate on prayer and learning. The day of a monk or nun, in theory at least, was regulated by regular prayer services in the abbey church. These services took place every three hours, day and night. When the services were over, monks would be occupied with all the tasks associated with maintaining a self-sustaining community. Abbeys grew their own food, did all their own building, and in some cases, grew quite prosperous doing so. Fountains Abbey and Rievaulx, both in Yorkshire, grew to be enormously wealthy, largely on the basais of raising sheep and selling the wool.  Throughout the Dark Ages and Medieval period the monasteries were practically the only repository of scholarship and learning. The monks were by far the best educated mermbers of society - often they were the only educated members of society. Monasteries acted as libraries for ancient manuscripts, and many monks were occupied with laboriously copying sacred texts."

CATHEDRALS, CHAPELS, CHURCHES, THE GOTHIC, GARGOYLES

Amiens Cathedral: A Multimedia Project for the Columbia Univ. Core - A SPECIAL SITE

Go through it to believe it.

A Brief History and Introduction to Westminster Abbey

Architectural masterpiece of the 13th-16th C., Westminster Abbey is home to innumerable tombs of English Kings, Queens and other famous persons. Every coronation since 1066, the Abbey is a living part of English history. Take virtual tour, visit shrine of Edward the Confessor and the Henry VII chapel. If you're interested in cathedrals, site is important.

Churches in Brussels

Part of the Belgium Travel Network, includes photos/descriptions of three of Brussel's magnificent Middle Age Cathedrals.

Gargoyles Then and Now

"What are these fantastic monsters doing in the cloisters under the very eyes of the brothers as they read? What is the meaning of these unclean monkeys, strange savage lions and monsters?"-- St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Interesting compilation of black/white photographs of gargoyles, brief description of pagan roots, symbolic meaning and function in medieval architecture.

Gothic Dreams

Immersive exploration of gothic architecture. Part of wonderful Earthlore Exploration series. On-line photographic galleries, cathedral profiles and detailed cathedral design section will floor you (pun intended). Truly astounding, inspiring site.

St. John the Divine - NYC - Pilgrimage to the Middle Ages

The world's largest gothic cathedral - and in NYC! Take the excellent tour.

Tour of Durham Cathedral and Castle

Built in 1093, Durham Cathedral has been called "the most glorious building in Christendom." Last resting place of St Cuthbert (greatest early English saint), St.Bede (greatest early English scholar). Nearby Durham Castle built by William the Conquerer in 1072. Comprehensive virtual tours show detail and grandeur of two ancient, magnificent buildings.

A Walk Around Winchester Cathedral

Quality photos illustrate well written descriptions of history of Winchester - once England's capital - and the famous 800 year old cathedral. So well conceived it feels experiential.

Welcome to the Virtual Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo Buonarroti commissioned by Pope Julius II della Rovere in 1508 to repaint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel completing his work between 1508 and 1512. Clear, crisp graphics of Michelangelo's exquisite artwork make up for the busy wallpaper. You could not get a better view if you were standing in the Sistine Chapel itself.

THE CRUSADES

The Crusades 1

"Western Europe's most ambitious common enterprise and its most conspicuous failure was the attempt to bring together all mankind in Christian unity under the leadership of the pope. The most intense part of this enterprise and the one that enlisted the most widespread support in Europe from all levels of society was the Crusades. The Crusades in the narrow sense of the expeditions to conquer and hold the Holy Land for the West began at the end of the eleventh century and lasted throughout the remainder of the medieval period. In a more inclusive sense, the Crusades include several other important contributing factors: The reconquest of Spain and Sicily from he Moslems; * The extension of the Christian frontier in the Baltic region to take in Lithuanians, Estonians, Prussians and Finns; * Christian missions to convert the Mongols and other Eastern peoples; * Concurrent with the Crusades was the effort to convert or eliminate the Jews within Europe that led ultimately to their expulsion from many parts of the West. The Crusades inspired the most dedicated valor, the most bloodthirsty cruelty, and the greediest vandalism of medieval men. They offered the fullest opportunity for combined fulfillment of Germanic heroic aspirations and Christian ideals of brotherhood and self-sacrifice."

The Crusades 2

Outstanding summaries. "The Crusades were a series of campaigns against Islam and against heretics and troublemakers in Europe itself. They were lead by kings, princes, knights and papal legates as well as by shepherd and hermits on unique occasions. They were not always under direct control of the Church, a fact which caused much distress to a number of Popes. Different motives influenced those who journeyed to the Holy Land, and they were not always religious ones. The Church offered many incentives to encourage men to take the Cross. These included remission from sins, protection for the Crusaders' families, freedom from law suits and exemption from interest on loans authorized by the Church."

"The Crusades, then, were more than just campaigns in a Holy War against Islam. Religious fervour was not the only motive and the actual Crusades rarely went according to plan. The initial idea of fighting for Christ's birth-right gave way to combatting heretical Christians, pagans and "evil" rulers. The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade has been considered by many scholars the ultimate deviation from the original Crusading ideal. The failure of every Crusade after the First, the frequent degenerations into debauchery and drinking by members of the armies, emphasizes the abyss between the ideal and the reality of the Crusading movement. The inability to inspire commitment and establish a strong unified leadership or the strategy to defeat the Saracens on their own land, plagued each Crusade, dooming them to failure. Had those who organized them learned from previous mistakes, the result might have been different."

Account of the Battle of Hattin, ll87

How the Sunni Muslims under the leadership of Saladin defeated the Latin forces at the Battle of Hattin. Written in a narrative form, as seen through the eyes of a local Frank, named "Ernoul." Gives readers the feelings that they are actually there.

Childrens Crusade of 1213

"The survival of the Crusading spirit during the century is further shown by the extraordinary movement in 1212 which is known as the Children's Crusade.This expedition which, of course, was not a Crusade at all in the strict sense of the term ­ attracted thousands of children and young adults from northern France and western Germany to its banners. The "Crusade" was preached in France by a peasant boy named Stephen from a village near Vendome. In Germany, a boy named Nicholas from Cologne started the movement . The sorry business was summarized by a chronicler" on this site.

History of the Crusades

"Rather" aggressively positive analysis.  "Notwithstanding their final overthrow, the Crusades hold a very important place in the history of the world. Essentially the work of the popes, these Holy Wars first of all helped to strengthen pontifical authority; they afforded the popes an opportunity to interfere in the wars between Christian princes, while the temporal and spiritual privileges which they conferred upon crusaders virtually made the latter their subjects. At the same time this was the principal reason why so many civil rulers refused to join the Crusades. It must be said that the advantages thus acquired by the popes were for the common safety of Christendom. From the outset the Crusades were defensive wars and checked the advance of the Mohammedans who, for two centuries, concentrated their forces in a struggle against the Christian settlements in Syria; hence Europe is largely indebted to the Crusades for the maintenance of its independence. Besides, the Crusades brought about results of which the popes had never dreamed, and which were perhaps the most, important of all. They  re-established traffic between the East and West, which, after having been suspended for several centuries, was then resumed with even greater energy; they were the means of bringing from the depths of their respective provinces and introducing into the most civilized Asiatic countries Western knights, to whom a new world was thus revealed, and who returned to their native land filled with novel ideas; they were instrumental in extending the commerce of the Indies, of which the Italian cities long held the monopoly, and the products of which  transformed the material life of the West. Moreover, as early as the end of the twelfth century, the development of general culture in the West was the direct result of these Holy Wars."

Chronology of the Crusades

The Crusades: A Chronicle in Art

Magnificent, extensive site dedicated to the crusades. From Pope Urban's 1095 sermon to King Richard's 1191 march to Jerusalem. Excellent chronology complete with beautiful pieces of art to accompany them. Remarkable, helpful, well organized, and colorful.

The Crusades and the Rise of Islam

Crusades in simple terms. Although somewhat simplistic, the crisp facts can be a helpful summary and review.

Female Heroes:  The Women Left Behind

"The effect of the Crusades on women left behind to fend for themselves was dramatic. The absence of a husband, son or guardian could be as long as 10 years. Then there were the men who never returned. It is reported that in the second and third crusades perhaps 500,000 were lost, a significant drain on the male Christian population."

Medieval Sourcebook- Crusades

Over a hundred links organized in chronological order take reader through all the crusades, orders, with access to translations of key speeches and documents. Emphasize the period encompassed by the first four crusades, but includes comprehensive information encompassing the entire segment of history.

Medieval Historiography: Rationalizing Strategies in Crusader Art

"The era of the Great Crusades encompass two periods in the art in Europe. It spans the end of the Romanesque style and the beginning of Gothic art, the former ending around the middle of the 12th century."

Siege and Capture of Jerusalem

First hand accounts.  Nasty, nasty stuff.

Story of the First Crusade

"The First Crusade began on November 27, 1095, with a proclamation from Pope Urban II delivered to clergy and lay folk who had gathered in a field in Clermont, central France. His topic: an appeal for help that he had received from the Byzantine Emperor, Alexius I Comnenus."

Amiens Cathedral: A Multimedia Project for the Columbia Univ. Core - A SPECIAL SITE

BRITANNIA

BRITANNIA

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Fascinating (and massive) 52-part account of history covering the years 1 through 1154 AD from the point of view of the Anglo-Saxons. This is the COMPLETE TEXT.

The Anglo Saxon Chronicle

"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a complex set of interrelated manuscripts, of which the earliest is known as the Parker Chronicle. There are seven major manuscripts comprising what is generally termed The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle."

Brief History of Anglo Saxon England

After the Roman Empire crumbled, before the Norman Conquest, Anglo Saxon culture flourished in England. Depth of Anglo Saxon influence on subsequent English culture.

Battle of Hastings:   An  Account of the Battle That Altered World History

"To gain a clear understanding of why the Battle of Hastings occurred, you should be aware of the political and cultural histories of England and Normandy before the battle, the intertwined relationships of England and Normandy, the relationship of the English royalty to the Norman dukes, and, lastly, the principal personalities: Harold Godwinson, Duke William, and Edward the Confessor. Armed with this knowledge, it will be very apparent why the battle occurred and why it was inevitable in the context of history, as history developed."  Full-service site.

Battle of Hastings 1066

Extensive and detailed by a resident of Hastings. Background of Britain including Roman invasion, Saxon invasion, Christianity, Viking invasion, and kings of Britain. Geneology of Duke William and King Harold II. Causes of battle, contestants' prepartion and armies, maps and photographs of battle location, description of battle, and results. Norman rule. Bayeux Tapestry (description from the 11th century). Timeline, Glossary, and Bibliography.  "Story of the Battle of Hastings that was fought on the 14th October 1066. An event so significant, it totally changed the course of English history. To speak about this battle without recourse to the events that led up to it would be an injustice to the people of this island who have fought and died for her. What makes this event so important to the English is the fact that it was the last time any foreign power was to conquer her. Without doubt, a lesson was learnt that became etched into this island race for ever."

Britannia

Quintessential British site. Messy and hard to use but a catalog of great Web links. Articles, essays on castles, kings, popes, Wales, abbots, archibishops, British monarchs, cathedrals, King Arthur, documents.

Britannia's Narrative History of Britain

The Anglo-Saxon Period, The Arthurian Period , Medieval Britain , From Reformation to Restoration and - The Age of Empire - First Rate Terse Historical Summarys.

Britannica Sources of British History

Repository of links to an incredible array of English historical source documents. St. Patrick's actual Confession, in his own hand; actual Magna Carta; laws of William the Conquerer. Eyewitness accounts of battles, rebellions, heroes and villains. Compelling reading. Humanizes history. "Britannia brings you the rich documentary history of England and Wales, so that you can begin to appreciate the foundation on which the present nation stands...Significant charters, histories, chronicles, accounts, laws and summonses."

Henry Tudor--Shape Shifter?

Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at Bosworth Field. Since then, many Ricardians have expressed a wish to rearrange his face. Now, here's your chance. If your browser supports Java, click and drag on Henry's face to reveal his true character.

Magna Carta

With the Magna Carta, King John placed himself and England's future sovereigns and magistrates within the rule of law. Read about this "charter of ancient liberties guaranteed by a king to his subjects." Translation of the 1297 version of Magna Carta.

Secrets of the Norman Invasion

Enormous informative source. The author writes: "The following work arose out of my insatiable desire to know exactly where the Normans landed prior to the Battle of Hastings." Surveys, photographs, field walking, archaeological work.

The Shakespeare Mystery

"Shakespeare's works were full of references and allusions indicating a highly-educated man, probably of noble birth. In contrast, there was little evidence Shakespeare of Stratford had the education or life experience that would allow him to develop the literary qualities required to compose the plays." Debates on the "Shakespeare Authorship question." Audio excerpts, debate transcripts, list of "doubt theories" since 1728. Links to Oxford/MIT Shakespeare project. Complete works on the Internet library. Extensive "Authorship Question" reading list.

Sub-Roman Britain: An Introduction

ORB Online Essay by Christopher Snyder. Britannia in the fifth and six centuries.

William the Conqueror

"Reigned 1066-1087. Duke of Normandy 1035-1087. Invaded England defeated and killed his rival Harold at the Battle of Hastings and became King. The Norman conquest of England was completed by 1072 aided by the establishment of feudalism under which his followers were granted land in return for pledges of service and loyalty."

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Back to Basics--A Series for Newer Ricardians

"Background, major events, and principal players associated with that period of English history - the Wars of the Roses, the fall of the House of Lancaster and rise of the House of York, and the life, times, and reign of Richard III.

Not Guilty--Again!

" Three Justices of the U.S. Supreme Court find Richard III Not Guilty Following Mock Trial Oral Argument Held at the U.S. Supreme Court...On June 4, 1997, the Lawyers' Committee for the Shakespeare Theater in Washington, D.C. sponsored a mock trial before three Justices of the U.S. Supreme Court and a large number of members of the Washington, D.C. Bar. Following oral arguments, Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist and Associate Justices Ruth Bader Ginsberg and Stephen G. Breyer, in a 3-0 decision, ruled that the prosecution had not met the burden of proof that 'it was more likely than not that the Princes in the Tower had been murdered; that the bones found in 1674 in the Tower were those of the Princes; and that Richard III had and that Richard III had ordered or was complicitous in their deaths."  The defense lawyers put on a good show.  The result?  Go and see.

Richard III - Brief Biography.

RICHARD III AND YORKIST HISTORY SERVER

The Richard III and Yorkist History Server, sponsored by the American Branch of the Richard III Society. Devoted to the study of King Richard III, "last of the medieval English kings the Wars of the Roses, a dynastic struggle in the later middle ages that pitted Yorkist against Lancastrian  fifteenth-century England and its culture the reputation of Richard III in history, literature, and drama, especially Shakespeare."  Excellent site.

Richard III Society

Thanks mainly to Shakespeare, England's Richard III (1452-1485), is known as the wicked, hunchbacked uncle who murdered his way to the throne. Site attempts to resurrect his reputation by exploring the events that surrounded his turbulent life. Uniquely English historic revisionism. Fun and surprisingly informative. Have an open mind and you'll be surprised at your reactions.

SCOTLAND

The Gathering of the Clans

Nearly every Scot clan is represented here with origin and history, and colorful renderings of its tartan (plaid cloth) and badge. Includes listing of early Scottish Kings. Of special interest is the coverage of the lowland clans, or border clans - many called "Reivers" as they pillaged and plundered against other clans or the English.

Nessie on the Net

"Scotland's first and official Loch Ness Monster Site." Includes webcam which updates every 120 seconds showing "the most famous monster hunting location of Urquhart Castle." Also includes video streams of eyewitness interviews as well as a "search Nessie' search engine.
Scottish Highlands and Islands

"The Celts were the first race to use the long sword and small shield (a type of buckler shield) in Europe. Previously, knives or daggers, short swords-as the Romans used-were the accepted "correct" way of fighting. This three and one-half foot long sword put fear in the Romans." Features Scottish , Medieval, Celtic History; Battles and Wars of England and Scotland. Scottish timeline from 7000 B.C.  Key information on Medieval Witchcraft and Scottish origins.  Detailsabout everyday life, religion and artforms. Decent section on the Vikings, Breton, and British Celts. Clan map of Scotland is definitely cool. Text heavy, but good.  

ROYALTY

The Monarchs of England

Britannia Web biographies of the men and women who have ruled Britain since 802 AD. Listed by royal house, excellent articles contain genealogies, maps and links to prehistoric period and Roman period, Anglo-Saxons, Arthur, Medieval Britain, Reformation, myths and legends.

Tudor England

Did you know ...that the population in Tudor England was over 4 million people in 1599? ...what "government by seal" means? ...what the 5 types of mental diseases were in the early Tudor medical opinion? ...where Sir Walter Raleigh's head was kept for 29 years - after his execution in 1618? Simply click and go - the answers are at your fingertips.

Tudors and Stuarts

Great jump-off point to learn about Tudor and Stuart periods. The Tudor period "begins when Henry Tudor, a Lancastrian, defeated King Richard 111 at the battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 ending the War of the Roses." Monarchs, Protestant church beginnings, Bloody Mary, Spanish Armada, Elizabethan Age, Mary Queen of Scots, Civil War, The Restoration. Link to complete works of Shakespeare.

Tudor Recipes and Helpful Hints

Recipes from the Tudor Kitchen for Pheasants a la Dauphionoise, Michaelmas Goose, Mulled Cider, Best Pomader Directions, Yuletide Wassail, Millennial Cookies (tausendjahrkuchen), Haggis Sausage.

The Tudor Times

Where else would you find a 3D Puzzle of Camelot or a Dream Castle Blocks Set? Recipes for Michaelmas Goose or Pheasants a la Dauphinoise? Or a chance to surf the humorous, yet satirical, Ring of Irony? Humor waiting for you around every corner!  Extraordinary site.

THE PLAGUE

The Black Death 1

Intriguing site! Extensive information on the black death, descriptions, how it was best avoided, the people's reactions. Includes effects the plague had on politics, culture, art, and economy. Brings to life the horror that came with the plague. "The sensible thing to do when the plague struck was to get out of town, for people expected the plague would remain local. Aristocrats could do this because they had estates in the countryside. The poor, of course, had nowhere to go, so they remained and died."  "The bubonic plague did not go away. It still exists, everywhere in the world. It is quite common among rodent populations--rats, of course, but squirrels, rabbits and skunks as well. . . .The plague is still very much with us."

The Black Death 2

"The Black Death serves as a convenient divider between the central and the late Middle Ages. The changes between the two periods are numerous; they include the introduction of gunpowder, increased importance of cities, economic and demographic crises, political dislocation and realignment, and powerful new currents in culture and religion. Overall, the later Middle Ages are usually characterized as a period of crisis and trouble. The portrait should not be painted unrelievedly bleak, but the tone is accurate enough and echoes voices from the era itself.

The Black Death did not cause the crisis, for evidence of the changes can be seen well before 1347. But the plague exacerbated problems and added new ones, and the tone of crisis is graver in the second half than in the first half of the century. Standing at the century's mid-point, the plague serves as a convenient demarcation."

Bubonic Plague

How its transmitted ? What happens ? Where does it occurs? What has been the historical and social impact ? These questions are answered and more  here. "About 25% of the population of Europe was killed in the 14th century. That's 25 million people - more than the total population of Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland, and Delaware combined. Disease killed three times more people than died in WWI. Before the 1300's, the Plague had been absent from Europe for almost 1000 years. After that time, Plague epidemics occurred almost regularly for 200 years. The Plague changed people's attitudes about life, created new superstitions, and became engrained in folklore in Renaissance Europe."

Bubonic Plague A.K.A "Black Death"

How black death was transmitted, its symptoms, statistics, and medieval superstitutions treatments. Also the MACARONI GAME that gives an experience in the transmission of the bubuonic plague. (Good teaching tool for presentations and good resource for reports.)

Church's Involvement in the Bubonic Plague

"The Middle Ages marked a time of strong religious convictions, and it was during the Bubonic Plague that anger toward the Roman Catholic Church and the persecution of Jews intensified. The church played an important role in the lives of the people of the 13th and 14th Centuries, and it was forced to intervene when Christians demanded help." Maps of routes by which the plague was spread. And another site on this subject HERE.

A General Study of the Plague in England 1539-1640 - Specific Reference to Loughborough

"Throughout the Middle Ages most of populated Britain suffered sweeping ravages of disease and pestilence; individually and collectively these epidemics were referred to as the plague. Examination of the Leicestershire town of Loughborough's Parish Register 1 reveals valuable statistical data, particularly for burials after 1538. . . Offers insight into some of the social effects of the plague. . . Attempt to investigate the local myths and legends has been undertaken. The Plague and how it did spread?

Jewish History Sourcebook:  The Black Plague and the Jews, 1348-1349

How and why the Christians blamed the Jews for occurrence and spread of the Black Death. "Reported that the leaders in the Jewish metropolis of Toledo had initiated a plot and that one of the conspirators was a Rabbi." How some Jews were forced to confess, tortured, and killed.

Plague

"Plagues devastated Elizabethan England. They were a constant threat to the people and the land. The most devastating to England was the bubonic plague. London was afflicted over a dozen times during the 1500's. he bubonic plague originated in Central Asia, where it killed 25 million people before it made its way into Constantinople in 1347. From there it spread to Mediterranean ports such as Naples and Venice. Trade ships from these Mediterranean ports spread plague to the inhabitants of southern France and Italy. It had spread to Paris by June of 1348, and London was in the grips of plague several months later. By 1350, all of Europe had been hit by plague. From this time to the mid 1600's, the disease was seen in England."

Did you know that Elizabeth I, for example, had strict standards and guidelines enforced in order to protect herself and her court from contracting the plague virus. No one from London was allowed into Windsor Castle. Anyone trying to get in was immediately hanged. "

Plague and Public Health in Renaissance Europe

Physicians, writers, poets, and chroniclers wrote about how the plague might have started and how it was affecting the population of Europe. Certain individuals were persecuted because it was believed that they infected the population with the Black Death. To gain a better perspective of the plague, look at all types of facets, science, religion, politics, and economics during that time.  Good stepping stone in exploring the many faces of the Black Death.

Plague-Proof Yourself and Your Family

List of  "helpful" recommendations.  One typical suggestion:  "Go forth barefoot in sackcloth sprinkled with ashes. Weep, pray, tear at your hair, carry candles and relics. Sometimes decorate yourself with ropes around your neck or beat yourself with whips."

Yersinia pestis

Bubonic plague has had a major impact on the history of the world. The plague has killed over 50 million people over the centuries. Scientific overview with microscopic pictures of Yersinia pestis and its manifestations,human symptions(warning graphic). Even thought it was small it had the power to almost exterminate the western world. And here.

INQUISITION AND HERESIES

Brief History of the Inquisition

Full-scale summary by categories. "The Inquisition was one of the great blights in the history of Christianity. No other institution in the history of the Christian Church was so horrible, so unjust, so...un-Christian." Theological foundations, targets, inquisitors, time-line.

Catholics, Heretics and Heresy

Challenging article by Gilles C H Nullens. "Members of different religions have generally regarded each other, at the best, as different but also, very often, as enemies. . . The people who deviated from one religion, those that we know as heretics in general, have been most of the time in History the object of repression. The main religions have not hesitated to use the secular forces to eliminate what they saw as their worst enemies, those coming from within and trying to change the system and put in doubt the leadership in place."

And who were the enemies?  The Cathars,  "members of a definitely heretic sect - destroyed by the Church. The Templars,  a true Catholic Order, "accused of heresy, probably without any real reason ," and suppressed. The Hospitallers, the Knights of Malta, a Catholic Order. "The Rose-Croix and the Rosicrucians that show the link that always existed between Christians and Masons. . . The incredible story of Rennes-le-Chateau. The importance even to day of the Merovingian dynasty."

Conclusion? "Research about heretics like the Cathars or military/religious orders like the Templars and the Hospitallers shows clearly that the present ethnic wars are nothing new. Atrocities like the recent ones in Bosnia and Africa have happened before and probably will again. It also stresses - and this is not an attack against the organised religions - that where religion and states have interests in common, the repression of any deviation can be terrible."

Pre-Inquisition Background - istorical Overview

"The measures for the repression and extermination of heresy culminated in the organized system, known as the Inquisition. Its history presents what is probably the most revolting spectacle in the annals of civilized Europe. The representatives of the Church appear ... in the name of religion applying torture to countless helpless victims ... and pronouncing upon them a sentence which, they knew, involved perpetual imprisonment or death in the flames."  After the Roman Church had consolidated its power in the early Middle Ages, heretics came to be regarded as enemies of society. The crime of heresy was defined as a deliberate denial of an article of truth of the Catholic faith, and a public and obstinate persistence in that alleged error. At this time, there was a sense of Christian unity among townspeople and rulers alike, and most of them agreed with the Church that heretics seemed to threated society itself.

Inquisition

The Galileo Project.  Click on Christianity to reach the Inquisition. Informative background on how the Catholic Church's permanent institution known as the Inquisition was in charge of eradicating heretics. How through the centuries the Church has dealt with the heretics. How the inquisition evolved through the centuries.

The Spanish Inquisition

Inquisition. A Heretic's Final Journey

Very disturbing and descriptive site focusing on torture during the Inquisition. Not for everyone. "(These pages are NOT meant to glorify torture. Torture is abominable; perhaps the vilest of all crimes. The point here is to show the dangers of rampant fundamentalism of ANY stripe- and to reveal parts of history censored out by pious, hypocritical, corporate religionists.)

The use of torture is not confined to the Dark Ages or to any religious sect or government. People are being tortured at this very moment in places all over the world. Those of us living in countries where these practices are forbidden have to appreciate the protective aspect of civilization. Yearnings for "anarchy" or a "Bible based society" might be quelled after reading these descriptions and seeing these images."

Additional links for a more critical look at the Church's participation.

The Malleus Maleficarum

"Published in 1486, the Malleus Maleficarum (The Hammer of Witches) was the most popular handbook for Witch hunters during the great Witch craze of the 16th and 17th centuries. Indeed, until Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress began circulating in 1678, only the Bible sold better! Written by two German friars, Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer who were prosecutors of heretics in the Rhineland and Northern Germany. Although their own behaviour inspired protests to the Pope, in 1484 the recently elected Pope Innocent VIII endorsed their activities.

The Malleus Maleficarum gave theological approval to every grotesque superstition concerning diabolism and Witches, and resulted in the torture and death of thousands of innocent people - particularly Women. The book addressed such questions as 'Why is it that Women are cheifly addicted to evil superstitions?", and concluded that "All Witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which is in Women insatiable...wherefore for the sake of fulfilling their lusts, they consort even with devils.'"

The Medieval Inquisition

"Brief history of the medieval Inquisition." Established in the early thirteenth century to combat widespread popular heresy, the Inquisition and its tribunals identified, prosecuted and punished heretics and their supporters. Seen as a symbol of religious and political intolerance against the Protestants, Jews, Catholic heretics and the political order of the Knights of the Templar. Presents the circumstances of the Medieval Inquisition and revisits the horror of the Church inquisition actions. While the church was accountable for the deaths of many, the townspeople also manipulated the Inquisition to their own advantage.  From excellent article by David Burr:  "When medieval people used the word 'inquisition,' they were referring to a judicial technique, not an organization. There was, in fact, no such thing as 'the Inquisition' in the sense of an impersonal organization with a chain of command. Instead there were 'inquisitors of heretical depravity,' individuals assigned by the pope to inquire into heresy in specific areas. They were called such because they applied a judicial technique known as inquisitio, which could be translated as 'inquiry' or 'inquest.' "  Good  scholarly site.

MEDIEVAL/MIDDLE AGES WORLD

The Camelot International Village

"Life in the middle ages was much, much harder than it is now. By 1200 AD life was more settled, but it was certainly not peaceful. Wars, crusades and peasant revolts. Plague, starvation, and great contrasts in living standards between rich and poor. Trade flourished and towns grew and prospered. New industries set up and luxury goods reached Europe from the far corners of the world. Skilled craftsmen built magnificent castles and cathedrals.  Thousands of medieval buildings still standing, and many everyday objects. Medieval people wrote books and letters about important events.  Detailed accounts of their business and farming activities. Poems and songs which delighted medieval audiences preserved in manuscripts, so we can listen to them and enjoy them today. The Camelot International Village will let you learn more about the people and the society of the middle ages. Several shockwave games where you can enter an archery tournament or even throw rotten tomatoes at the town thief."

Earthlore Explorations - Main Introduction to On-Line Cultural Features

"The premiere feature in an immersive library of cultural-historical explorations with the peoples of our world and the stories of their existence. Providing a contemporary home through our transitional age for the ancient traditions of spirit found within world culture." The invitation to explore is alluring, graphics visually enchanting and written with a flair of mystique. Stay a while to fully appreciate this project. Themes include Shakespeare, Gothic Architecture (definitely apprenticeship quality info), Mythic World, Sacred Animals, Lore of Astrology and Hidden Mysteries.

The Middle Ages

"The Middle Ages stretched roughly from the fifth century to the fifteenth century. It began with the collapse of the Roman Empire and although Roman customs continued for a while, it was soon replaced by a system of running society called feudalism." Short but interesting points of information about the feudal system, royal court, manors, life in the towns, barons, medieval soldiers, peasants.

The End of the Middle Ages

Outstanding tutorial.  Economy, Feudal Institutions, New Monarchies, Holy Roman Empire, Italy's City-States, Eastern Europe, Ottoman Turks, The Church, Literature, Intellectual Life, Visual Arts, Music.

Exploring Ancient World Cultures: Medieval Europe

"It was the intelligentsia of the Renaissance that labelled the years preceding their own as middle -- caught between the ethos of the archaic civilizations Greece and Rome and the revitalized learning of their own time. That the thinkers of the Renaissance were masters of hubris is not news; their less-than-generous characterization of the thousand or so years that separated them from Rome reflects their prejudices and their collective oversight. For the Middle Ages were much less uniform and much richer than most Renaissance thinkers would allow."Literature includes extensive collection of essays, images, chronology, related sites. A real pool of knowledge! 

Anonimalle Chronicle

Acccount of Peasants' Revolt of 1381., Another link illustrates Important Events in the Fourteenth Century including illustrations from 15th-century manuscript of Jean Froissart's chronicle.

Fifteenth Century Life

"Many casual students of history today and most students of past generations thought of the fifteenth century in English history as a time when English folk had forgotten what was good for them politically, religiously, legally, and in most other ways. Such a viewpoint has become increasingly less tenable as researchers delve more deeply and with greater sensitivity into what was truly taking place in fifteenth-century England." 15th century life - cuisine, falconry, power and influence of medieval women.

Life in the Middle Ages World

Look at these special award-winning pages created by 7th grade students at the Luther Burbank Middle School in Burbank, Ca.

Medieval Domestic Life

Wide-ranging project provides a survey of domestic medieval life. Most informative sections discuss Contraceptive Methods, Rape in the Middle Ages, Manners.  Eleanor of Aquitaine, iron working, witchcraft documents, prostitution, recipes, sexual development, the School of Trotula, famuli, marriage, love, beer. Many interesting brief vignettes.

Medieval Life

Provides a focus of community for those with Medieval interests. Medieval Life, independent publication supported by the Centre for Medieval Studies (University of York). Brings together history, archaeology, literature, art, music, architecture, religion and many other fields. Topics such as Peter the Venerable, the Medieval German towns and the Hanseatic League, the Crisis of 1450 in English Public Life, Consumption and Symbolism of Alcohol in Anglo-Saxon England, Hell and the Anglo-Saxons, to name a few. Many abstracts.

The Medieval Manor

Brief description of the medieval manor. Impact of the moldboard plow. Description of agricultural techniques. Importance of manor. Social classes and conditions.

Manorial Glossary

Over 144 terms defining ideas and principles of manorialism in the Middle Ages. Univ. Mississippi Department of English authored this comprehensive reference for academics, intellectuals and students. Indispensable reference tool for the study and understanding of manorialism. Includes explanations of words and phrases where meanings have changed or lost through time.

The Medieval Warhorse

Excellent overview of the horse's role in the middle ages, from Charlemagne's "Greatness on Horseback" to the mounted knights and tournaments. Discusses the warhorse's equipment and the knight's attire, and other uses of the horse besides warfare. "Despite a decline in the quality of technological innovation in many spheres of life, the Middle Ages saw the horse adapted to new roles in such diverse areas as warfare and agriculture."  Wonderful site.

The Middle Ages Cathedral - Amiens

Virtual tour in images of a typical French cathedral from the High Middle Ages.

The Psalter Map

"Although tiny, it contains a wealth of information." Large, beautiful image helps us to understand how Medievals thought of the world surrounding them. Accentuates the importance of religion in their understanding of the world. Look carefully at the detailed map, you never know what you may find!

The Tome

"What Ho, Good Gentles. Welcome to the castle of 'Sir Clisto Seversword, Knight of the Holy Blade of York.' Within this very comprehensive Tome, you will discover thousands of links pertaining to the Medieval or Renaissance periods. All topics are numbered and categorized alphabetically for easy research."  I do not know of any "place" that is more comprehensive on the "Middle Period" than this enormously comprehensive site.  Arranged in 70 "chapters" covering "everything.  And each "chapter" is broken down to a range of information divisions.  Unbelievable.  "Some" of the categories:   Architecture, Armourer & Weaponsmiths, Artwork, Famous Battles & Wars, Blacksmithing, Brewing, Cartography, Clothing & Garb,   Dance, Falconry, Food, Housing, Jesters & Fools, Language, Law & Justice, Medical, Minstrels/Music & Instruments, Money & Coinage, Movies, Noble Animals, Noble Men and Women, Occupations and Trades, Pirates, Religion & The Church, Renaissance Faires & Info, Siege Equipment & Defence, Societies/Guilds & Troupes, Sword Fighting & Fencing, Mathmatics, Technology, Time & Timekeeping, Torture Devices & Punishments, Toys, Trade & Economics, Warfare & Tactics, Wedding & Wedding Info.

DISEASE, SCIENCE, ALCHEMY

From Miracles to Medicine - The Mediæval Miracles of Healing

Miraculous cures and medical science.

More Miracles

The Medieval Science Page

"Provides a convenient and comprehensive set of links to all Web resources worldwide which deal with aspects of medieval science, both in Western and other cultures." Resource site dedicated to the history of science with a touch of magic. Alchemy, Animals, Astrolabe, Astronomy, Botany, Calendars, Cartography, Mathematics, Medicine, Physics, Time Museums, General History of Science and Renaissance Materials.

FAIRS, GAMES, MUSIC

A History of Traditional Games

"Nice job of placing each game within its historical context, and it covers a very wide range of games."

Medieval & Renaissance Games - Games for the Serious Gamer.

The Royal and Delightful Game of Piquet

How many card games could there be? Don't bother counting, simply add this one to the list! It's been around for quite a while - since at least the end of the 15th century. Do people still play Piquet? Well, now you can! It takes two people to play and "the dealer is called the younger; the other player is called the elder." Any takers? Click away for more details. A game every card shark should know? Well,...maybe not.

A Guide to Medieval and Renaissance Instruments - A large list and click to pictures and then a click to music for each one!

Medieval Music - Try Your Luck As A Medieval Musician

Listen to the sound of a medieval instrument and then try to determine which instrument, from those pictured, made that sound.

SOCIAL LIFE, WORK,  AND CULTURE - AND THE ORDINARY

Footwear of the Middle Ages

"By far what we know about shoes and shoemaking in the Middle Ages is surpassed by what we don't know. When it comes down to making any of the designs in this work, remember that all we have to work from are illustrations, which may only be artistic interpretations; and those shoes that have been excavated archaeologically, which at best represent slender visions into the techniques of manufacture, and highly limited examples of styles. It is as if someone was trying to reconstruct 20th C. shoe styles and manufacture techniques from photographs and ads in GQ and Vogue, and a large pile of half-rotten Tennis Shoes and one or two Cowboy Boots." - Enormous site! Tons of info on the Medieval shoe. Lots of graphics.

Le Poulet Gauche:  A Guide to 16th Century France

Guide to daily life in 16th century France. Created by a group dedicated to the recreation of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, Le Poulet Gauche is an actual tavern in France! Includes pages on history and politics, society and culture, tavern life, entertainment, as well as everyday life. Beautiful images and paintings!

Medieval Jobs

"One would expect the Middle Ages to have been a simple time, with few truly distinctive occupations, save the lord of the manor, his knights, his household, and the peasants. But, the complexity of the medieval working world is startling. Yes, the above are typical occupations of the age, but within these broad classifications we can define an incredible array of other occupations.   True, medieval jobs were not all fulfilling or stepping stones to success and status, as we envision the knight's position in the lord's court but ..........."  Read up on what folks actually did all day.

Medieval Housing: The Construction and History of Medieval Timber-Framed Houses in England and Wales

Medieval Towns and Villages - The Ideal Site

Plus how to construct one, what to look for.  Also on site, info about farming, the manor, food, clothing, houses.  Simple but great.

The History of Plumbing - Roman and English Legacy

"Harbored in the palace latrine was the world's first flushing "water closet" or toilet, with a wooden seat and a small reservoir of water. The device, however, was lost for thousands of years amid the rubble of flood and decay. Not until the 16th Century would Sir John Harington invent a "washout" closet anew, similar in principle. And it would take still another 200 years before another Englishman, Alexander Cumming, would patent the forerunner of the toilet used today. The luminous names of Doulton, Wedgwood, Shanks, and Twyford would follow."  Informative to say the least.

MEDIEVAL FOOD, DRINK, COOKERY

Food and Drink - Great Place to Start
Ale and Brewing in the Medieval Times (Medieval/Renaissance Brewing Homepage)

If you're an Ale drinker or simply interested in its history, this site provides it all. Ale... the drink of choice in England throughout the medieval period. "Since ale was basic to the diet of ordinary people, each household required a large and steady supply; a household of five people might require about 1 1/4 gallons a day, or about 8 3/4 gallons a week." Virtually everyone drank ale for nutritional purposes. Mead was another alcoholic beverage made by the fermentation of honey and water. By varying the proportions of honey and water and the point at which fermentation is stopped, a wide variety of types can be produced ranging from a very dry and light, to sweet and heavy-bodied.Until the late middle ages meads were highly popular beverages. The guilds controlled all aspects of the trade and productionof ale, mead and only toward the end of the 16th-century wines. Recipes, articles, newsletters, biographies, and even a mailing list for Ale connoisseurs. "

A Boke of Gode Cookery

"Medieval cooking was not, as is so easily assumed today, a dubious practice that produced inedible dishes filled with strange spices and dangerous ingredients. Medieval cooks used many of the same type of foodstuffs that are in use today, in addition to forms of food preparation that would be familar to any of us. The dishes and recipes they prepared were neither inedible nor dangerous, but extremely delicious and tasty products that employed the finest meats, grains, fruits, and vegeta