THE "MIDDLE" CENTURIES OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION FROM BYZANTIUM TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
AN INTERNET BOOK ON THE MEDIEVAL/RENAISSANCE/REFORMATION WORLD
PART I: ROME'S FALL TO THE EVE OF THE RENAISSANCE
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THE EARLY AND/OR
THE DARK DAYSThe Barbarians are
Coming |
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THE BYZANTINE
EMPIRE |
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THE EMERGING WORLD
OF LORDS -Knights and
Chivalry |
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LEADERS, GOVERNMENT,
STRUCTURECharlemagne, Feudalism,
Castles |
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A STRUGGLE FOR
MAN,GOD,SOULS
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The Early
ChurchSAINTS, SINNERS, MONKS, CATHEDRALS, CHAPELS, CHURCHES, GOTHIC, GARGOYLES, THE CRUSADES |
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BRITANNIA |
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BAD THINGS HAPPEN
TO GOOD PEOPLETHE PLAGUE, INQUISITION AND HERESIES, MEDIEVAL WITCHCRAFT |
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THE MIDDLE
TIMES |
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A FEW WARS AND THE
MILITARY |
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POPES, SCHISMS,
INQUISITION |
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LEADERS: MYTH
AND REALITY |
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ART AND
LITERATURE |
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THE INVALUABLE
SOURCES |
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TO PART II AND
ONLINE COURSES |
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MIDDLE CENTURIES HERE |
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TO PART II: SECOND WEB PAGE
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THE AGE OF DISCOVERY
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THE
REFORMATION |
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WARS OF
RELIGION |
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ELIZABETH AND
PHILIP |
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LIFE AND
TIMES |
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ABSOLUTISM AND
MONARCHY |
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ECONOMICS, CULTURE,
SCIENCE |
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THE 18TH CENTURY:
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THE "EARLY" AND/ OR THE "DARK"
DAYS
THE "EARLY" AND/ OR THE "DARK"
DAYS
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"THE BARBARIANS ARE COMING - AND THE "DARK
AGES"
- Did Barbarians call
themselves Barbarians?
- Nobody ever called themselves barbarians. It is not that sort of word. It is a word used about other people. It was used by the ancient Greeks to describe non-Greek people whose language they could not understand. The Romans adopted the Greek word and used it to label (and usually libel) the peoples who surrounded their own world. . . .The Roman interpretation became the only one that counted, and the peoples whom they called Barbarians became for ever branded €” and, of course ,babararianis has become a byword for the very opposite of everything that we consider civilised. The Erroneous Myth?: The Barbarians brought only chaos and ignorance, until the renaissance rekindled the fires of Roman learning and art.
- Who Were The Vikings?
- "In Norse, vÃking means piracy, and for centuries, ever since Viking raiders savagely attacked England's Lindisfarne monastery in A.D. 793 -- the Vikings have seemed to have been little more than blue-eyed barbarians in horned helmets. But archeological investigations of Viking sites stretching from Russia to Newfoundland have revealed a more human (if not altogether humane) side to the Viking character. Interview with NOVA and the curator of exhibit on Vikings at the Smithsonian." Explore a Viking village. Secrets of Norse ships, diaspora. Write your name in Runes. Build Tree-Ring timeline. Nova.
- The Peoples of the Dark Ages
- Comprehensive site examining origins of various tribes of Dark Ages and their battle for the remnants of the collapsing Roman Empire."
- The Dark Ages
- The period of history between the decline of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance known as the "Dark Ages" are an era of superstition, war, and death. For nearly a thousand years the rulers of various tribes across Europe and Asia arrive and decline as fast as a passing storm, but mold the structure of nations to come.
- The Dark Ages : Defining the Darkness
- "Its definition depends on who is defining it. Indeed, modern historians no longer use the term because of its negative connotation. Generally, the Dark Ages referred to the period of time ushered in by the fall of the Western Roman Empire."
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"In the aftermath of the Fall of the Western Roman
Empire, a new era began in Europe and the Mediterranean world. The
ancient certainties of the Pax Romana lay in ruins and while the
eastern emperors, ruling from Constantinople, kept the light of Roman
civilisation burning, in the west that light flickered and almost...
almost, went out. And so began the period of European history known as
the Dark Ages, when out of the ruins of the Western Empire grew a
number of new successor kingdoms, ruled over by the barbarian, usually
Germanic, peoples who inherited it. For the barbarians, this new
settlement was the culmination of a period of defeat, migration and
conquest know as the Volkerwanderung - the 'Wandering of the
Peoples."
TRANSFORMATION OF ROMAN WORLD: ROLE OF THE NORSE AND GERMANIC PEOPLES
THE BYZANTINE
EMPIRE
BYZANTIUM
They called it "the second Rome." A great city astride Europe and Asia and its vast empire which would preserve Greco-Roman culture and transmit it to the West, when Rome itself lay in barbarian hands. It became the center of the trading world and the focus of Christianity. Constantinople held the historic function "as the outpost of Europe against the invading hordes of Asia. Under the shelter of that defense of its eastern gateway, western Europe could refashion its own life; and it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the civilization of western Europe is a by-product of the will of the Byzantine Empire to survive."- Byzantine Studies Page
- One of the best Byzantine Studies pages. A Gateway. Listen to Byzantine music. Byzantine Culture. "Byzantium is the name given to both the state and the culture of the Eastern Roman Empire in the middle ages. Both the state and the inhabitants always called themselves Roman, as did most of their neighbors. Western Europeans, who had their own Roman Empire called them Orientals or Greeks... The composite nature of Byzantium. It was, without any doubt, the continuation of the Roman state, and until the seventh century, preserved the basic structures of Late Roman Mediterranean civic culture: - a large multi-ethnic Christian state, based on a network of urban centers, and defended by a mobile specialized army. Byzantine civilization constitutes a major world culture. Because of its unique position as the medieval continuation of the Roman State, it has tended to be dismissed by classicists and ignored by Western medievalists. Its internal elite culture was archaicizing and perhaps pessimistic. But as the centrally located culture, and by far the most stable state, of the Medieval period, Byzantium is of major interest both in itself, and because the development and late history of Western European, Slavic and Islamic cultures are not comprehensible without taking it into consideration.
- Metropolitan Museum of Art - Byzantium: Faith and Power, 1261-1557
- Major, remarkable exhibition.
- Ancient Byzantine Civilization - Home Reviewed Resources for Students and the Curious
- "The most powerful
periods of the Byzantium Empire were years that were stagnant in terms
of advancement of thought, but were highly active in terms of religion.
It should not be forgotten, however, that it was this highly detailed
embroidery of the Middle Ages that was to pave the way for the
Renaissance. The struggle between two very great religions, Islam and
Christianity, was to lead to the development of Islamic civilization on
the one hand, and Byzantine civilization on the other."
THE EMERGING WORLD OF LORDS AND
VASSALS
THE EMERGING WORLD OF LORDS AND
VASSALS
- The Chivalry Code
- Chivalry, Knights and the Feudal System
- The Knights Templar
- Chivalry, Knights and the Feudal System
- Who were they? : "A monastic military order formed at the end of the First Crusade to protect pilgrims traveling on route from Europe to the recently captured city of Jerusalem. Within a couple of decades the group became an order with the backing of both the Pope and the collective European monarchies. . . Within two centuries they had become powerful enough to defy all but the Papal throne. Feared as warriors, respected for their piety and sought out for their wealth, there is no doubt that the Knights Templar were the key players of the monastic fighting orders. it. "
- Knighthood
- Knights of the Roundtable!
LEADERS, GOVERNMENT, STRUCTURE - Knights of the Roundtable!
KNIGHTS AND CHIVALRY
THE LIFE OF CHARLEMAGNE
"Charlemagne revived the political and cultural life of Europe, which had collapsed after the fall of the West Roman Empire in the A.D. 400's. His activities laid the foundation of the European civilization that arose during the later Middle Ages." .
- Charlemagne
- "Coronation of
Charlemagne as emperor goes beyond the conflict between Church and state.
It is a symbolic event, a convenient point to gather some separate
threads." Nice, simple list format follows Charlemagne's life and ruling
aspects. Explains cultural significance of various events. Good background
and future references. Audio soundbites. And who was he? Charlemagne
(742-814), or Charles the Great, was the most famous ruler of the Middle
Ages and a key figure in European history. He conquered much of western
Europe and united it under a great empire. Charlemagne - Summary
- Carolingian empire began when rivals were engaged elsewhere. Describes the character of the Carolingian Regime with limitations and solutions. Charlemagne recreated the power, prestige, and culture of the Western Roman Empire. Consequences of Charlemagne's coronation became one of most important forces in Medieval Europe.
- Carolingians and After
- Rise of Carolingian Dynasty and Papal support. Charlemagne's reign consumed with wars in which he was usually victorious. Most important - the conquest of the Saxons and the Lombards bringing much of Germany and Italy into the circles of Holy Roman Empire and medieval civilization. Carolingian Decline and Division of the Empire to Louis the Pious.
- The Charlemagne Map
- Charlemagne - Charles the Great, King of the Franks and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire
- "He was so moderate in
the use of wine and all sorts of drink that he rarely allowed himself more
than three cups in the course of a meal. In summer after the midday meal,
he would eat some fruit, drain a single cup, put off his clothes and
shoes, just as he did for the night, and rest for two or three hours." Life of Charlemagne, written by Charlemagne's
traveling companion and monk, Einhard. First-hand diary account adds more
of a "personal touch" to the understanding of Charlemagne. Humorous
"stream of consciousness" commentary by Einhard. Timelines, maps, story
behind the "Song of Roland." Here Quote Page!
FEUDALISM
- The "F" Word
- The Common
definition."Feudalism was the dominant form of political organization in
medieval Europe. It was a hierarchical system of social relationships
wherein a noble lord granted land known as a fief to a free man, who in
turn swore fealty to the lord as his vassal and agreed to provide military
and other services. A vassal could also be a lord, granting portions of
the land he held to other free vassals; this was known as
"subinfeudation," and often led all the way up to the king. The land
granted to each vassal was inhabited by serfs who worked the land for him,
providing him with income to support his military endeavors; in turn, the
vassal would protect the serfs from attack and invasion. Feudalism arose
at a time when central governments were weak or nonexistent in Europe, and
kings used the system to exert control over their subjects and secure
military strength throughout their lands. In the absence of a strong
monarchy and rule of law, the feudal relationship between the lord and his
vassal was the glue that held medieval society together."
But what if none of this is true? Good examination. "The problem? Virtually none of it is accurate. Feudalism was not the "dominant" form of political organization in medieval Europe. There was no "hierarchical system" of lords and vassals engaged in a structured agreement to provide military defense. There was no "subinfeudation" leading up to the king. The arrangement whereby serfs worked land for a lord in return for protection, known as manorialism or seignorialism, was not part of a "feudal system." Monarchies of the early Middle Ages may have had their challenges and their weaknesses, but kings did not use feudalism to exert control over their subjects, and the feudal relationship was not the "glue that held medieval society together." In short, feudalism as described above never existed in Medieval Europe." READ ON IN THE ARTICLE.
- Feudalism and Feudal Institutions
- "Feudalism is a method of
government, and a way of securing the forces necessary to preserve that
method of government. It is also an extreme form of decentralization.
There many centers of power. Power does not reside at a center, or at the
top, even though there a pyramidal structure in theory, with the emperor
at the top and the simple knight at the bottom. In other words, feudalism
is rather more complex than it appears to be on paper." "In the
Middle Ages, networks of personal agreements formed the basis of the
political, economic and social systems. How these agreements developed and
how they were utilised during the early Middle Ages are currently topics
of scholarly debate. Nevertheless, by the late Middle Ages, the
terminology and concepts that are implied in the designation of a feudal
society had been defined by the legal profession."
- The Middle Ages: Feudal Life
- "In this "feudal" system, the king awarded land grants or "fiefs" to his most important nobles, his barons, and his bishops, in return for their contribution of soldiers for the king's armies. At the lowest echelon of society were the peasants, also called "serfs" or "villeins." In exchange for living and working on his land, known as the "demesne," the lord offered his peasants protection."
- The Central Middle Ages, A Reciprocal Society
- "The Middle Ages were dominated by the military elite and their families. However men and women of the noble classes were only a fraction of the total population. So how did the majority of the population fit into this feudal world? Recognize first of all, most Europeans were completely dependent on the lords and vassals for protection and leadership. As a result of this dependency, other groups had to give in to the demands of the lords and vassals. So, in essence, these resulting relations between the elite and lower classes were also reciprocal, however, they were unequal and exploitative compared to the relationship between military elites."
- Feudalism and the Military
Elite
- "Feudalism - a situation where there is no dominant political power or effective central leadership - no state or empire. Local leaders control political decisions, command the military power, have the controlling economic power and even dominate in the cultural realm. In a feudal society, power is treated as private possession; there is no effective state. Feudalism is a military based society. In feudal Europe, military might was the primary basis of power. The dominant leaders based their top status on their ability to command this military elite. The very culture of Europe during this period was military in nature - a warrior code. The glue that holds the society together is not a written law or formal bureaucratic system . Nor is there a formal economic system; this collapses in the absence of central political control. Instead, a number of complex social relationships tie the society together. A world where oaths and obligations, vows and promises and established expectations and customs provide the only stability possible. Loyalty to others and fulfilling one's oaths are the most important values in a feudal society. If these ties break down - anarchy."
- Feudal Terminology - Feudalism was NOT a term used in the Middle Ages!
- Over 130 feudal terms providing an essential resource to undergraduate students. Feudalism, the system of government based on ownership of land as it was practiced in Europe in the Middle Ages. Terms relating to the ebb and flow of daily feudal life, reflecting its poverty and brutality. Entries expose with luminous clarity the structure of power in European Society during the medieval era. Comprehensive reference for academics, intellectuals and students. Includes explanations of words and phrases where meanings have changed or lost through time. Valuable online companion.
- Medieval Sourcebook: Crisis? Collapse? Recovery? Feudalism?
- Short piece regarding the term feudalism and what it is supposed to mean. Historians are recently challenging the modern popular usage of the term as well as the meaning that 20th century professional medievalists have come to give it. Rather interesting on how we look back and try to explain our history. Range of original sources.
- The Feudal System
- The Feudal System was introduced to England following the invasion and conquest of the country by William I (The Conqueror). The system had been used in France by the Normans from the time they first settled there in about 900AD. It was a simple, but effective system, where all land was owned by the King. One quarter was kept by the King as his personal property, some was given to the church and the rest was leased out under strict controls." Good basic summaryand great organization charts.
Feudalism was the dominant form of political organization in medieval Europe. It was a hierarchical system of social relationships wherein a noble lord granted land known as a fief to a free man, who in turn swore fealty to the lord as his vassal and agreed to provide military and other services. A vassal could also be a lord, granting portions of the land he held to other free vassals; this was known as "subinfeudation," and often led all the way up to the king. The land granted to each vassal was inhabited by serfs who worked the land for him, providing him with income to support his military endeavors; in turn, the vassal would protect the serfs from attack and invasion.
CASTLES
- Castle and Siege Terminology
- English definitions for over 70 entries pertaining to Medieval castles and siege terminology. Univ. Mississippi's Department of English clear and comprehensive reference. Covers terms commonly used in undergraduate studies of Medieval history. Includes explanations of words and phrases where meanings have changed or lost through time.
- What Was it Like to Live in a Castle!
- A hard life. " Hardships were plenty, and even the wealthiest individuals often found themselves living in less than adequate quarters. There was no central heating, except for the central hearth or fireplace, which had to be tended to be efficient. Of course, that heat was usually saved for the lord and his family. Servants, soldiers, and others made due with tiny lamps and shivered a lot in the cold medieval nights. Even during the warmest months of the year, the castle retained a cool dampness and all residents spent as much time as possible enjoying the outdoors. Oftentimes, members wrapped blankets around themselves to keep warm while at work. Baths were taken in transportable wooden tubs, so that the summer sun could warm the water and the bather."
- Castles of Britain -
Castles Learning Center
- "What is a castle? A castle is a properly fortified military residence. Why were castles built? Initially, they were designed and built to hold down conquered territory. They also served to intimidate and strike fear into the local peoples, were places of refuge, and places for the lords to live. They were also impressive symbols of the power and wealth of their owners." Special castle learning-center, all the major castles and information on them in Britain. About Castles, Birds Eye Views, Building a Castle, Drawings, Dungeons, Food, Furnishings, Gatehouses, Images, King Edward l, Kitchens , Knights, License, Life in a Castle, Medieval Jobs, Parts of a Castle, Towers.
- Castles of Germany
- "The castles which are today such an unmistakable feature of the Rhein landscape date back to the Middle Ages. Their founders were feudal overlords, who, so far from cherishing any romantic notions, built them with one simple aim in mind: to protect their lands from marauders and predatory neighbors. They chose mountain-tops as strategically ideal situations based on the warlike function for which they were built and the back-breaking labour of the feudal serfs." Roadtrip journal of castles from Cologne to Mainz. Maps, timelines, histories, photos, art. Interactive map of Heidelberg's castle. Castles of Wales and Castles of Scotland
- Castles on the Web
- Search and tour individual Castles from around the world - from Austria to Yugoslavia. Palaces and Great Homes, Abbeys and Churches, Abbeys and Churches, Castles for Kids, books, glossary, myths and legends from Arthur to Robin Hood. For a castle or palace to stay in, you can click to info.
- The English Medieval Castle - Tight Summary and
Background From Britannia
- Island Castles - Medieval Fortresses of Great Britain
- "When William the Conqueror and his Norman army successfully invaded England in 1066 A.D., they were viewed by the local English population as aliens. The Norman occupation however, was destined to last for centuries and would waste no time in introducing the English people to feudalism. A key instrument in the enforcement of the new feudal system was the castle. Before 1066 most English fortifications followed the lines of the old Roman works and the Saxon burghs. These public projects had formerly offered general protection to whole villages and towns. The new order called for heavily fortified private strong points which would intimidate the local civilians into a more passive role." Photographs, explanation of old Norman castles at York, Edinburgh, Windsor, and the Tower of London.
- Medieval Fiefdom
- Well organized with topics on castles in every respect. Interworkings, design, structure, rooms, uses, and the seige. Also medieval society with excellent descriptions on each class and profession. Society, people, way of life.
- Schoenbrunn Castle - The great German castle.
"What is a castle? A castle is a properly fortified military residence. Why were castles built? Initially, they were designed and built to hold down conquered territory. They also served to intimidate and strike fear into the local peoples, were places of refuge, and places for the lords to live. They were also impressive symbols of the power and wealth of their owners."
A STRUGGLE FOR GOD, MAN, AND
SOULS - THE EARLY CHURCH
SAINTS, SINNERS, MONKS AND THEIR MISSIONS
- Safe Haven - St. Augustine
- "Saint Augustine was one of the foremost philosopher-theologians of early Christianity and the leading figure in the church of North Africa. He had a profound influence on the subsequent development of Western thought and culture, and shaped the themes and defined the problems that have characterized the Western tradition of Christian theology." Informative account of Augustine's life and his search for a reasonable and plausible religion of which to live by. It wasn't until the age of 32 that Augustine finally "...converted to Christianity and devoted the rest of his life to the pursuit of truth." His many works and teachings.
- Writings of Saint Augustine
- "Give me chastity and continence, but not just now." Quotations, letters, Christian Doctrine. Some links may be a little stubborn - but as Saint Augustine would say, "Patience is the companion of wisdom."
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- St. Benedict and his Order
- "One man whose simple genius remains undimmed to this day: Benedict of Nursia. Not only was he considered the father of Western monks, but he has been called the Co-Patron of Europe, along with Sts. Cyril and Methodius. For the simple reason that, through the influence of his spiritual sons and daughters, Western civilization was nurtured and largely preserved. In fact much of Europe's Christian roots were planted directly or indirectly through the work of the Benedictines, the black monks of legend who named a religious order after their muse." Synopsis of life of St. Benedict. Links to "Rule of St. Benedict" and "The Spirit of Benedictine Life" providing commentaries on the expectations of those called to the monastic life.
- St. Jerome
- "Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus), c.347-420, was a Father of the Church and Doctor of the Church, whose great work was the translation of the Bible into Latin, the edition known as the Vulgate (see Bible)." "Jerome was by several accounts a rather bad-tempered, prickly and unpleasant person, who was also unsuccessful when he tried the life of a monk. However, his reputation for disciplined holiness and biblical scholarship has survived over 1,500 years and should be of encouragement to those of us aware of our own unpleasant personal traits and habits. Heaven is populated not with the perfect, but with ordinary people who have tried their best to love God and serve humanity."
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- Medieval Monasticism
- I do not usually include another history course in this Book in detail. But this one is close to brilliant, by Dr. Deborah Vess of Georgia College and University. "Forms of religious life in the medieval west, the major contributions of medieval monasticism to medieval and modern culture, and of the major texts which governed medieval monastic life, expressed its fundamental values, and which inform us about patronage and the relationship of the monasteries to the secular world. A journey together into the desert, and through the lives and sayings of the desert hermits to explore the origins of monasticism; from there, we shall explore the legacy of Benedictine, Cluniac, and Cistercian monasticism, and the new orders of the Central Middle Ages. How European culture was formed and developed out of the peregrinations of such monastics as St. Boniface, St. Columba, and St. Columbanus. The great medievalist Jean Leclerq once described monastic culture, 'as the love of learning and the desire for God,' and we shall explore the legacy of learning which grew out of the monasteries, as well as the impact of the Benedictine motto "Ora et Labora" on the economic, social, and political life of Europe."
- Medieval
Monastery
- "The Medieval monastery was established during the Middle Ages. The first type of Medieval monastery adhered to the Benedictine Rule, established by St. Benedict in 529AD. Different orders of monks were also established during the Middle Ages. The major orders of Medieval monks were the Benedictines, the Cistercians and the Carthusians. These monastic orders differed mainly in the details of their religious observation and how strictly they applied their rules. In the twelfth century four hundred and eighteen monasteries were founded in England; in the next century, only about a third as many. In the fourteenth, only twenty-three monasteries were founded in England."
- Monasticism in Medieval Christianity
- "The term "monasticism" (monachos, a solitary person) describes a way of life chosen by religious men or women who retreat from society for the pursuit of spiritual salvation. Though monasteries were landowners from their inception, in the tenth century they began to acquire substantial gifts of cash, precious liturgical objects, land, and livestock. Monasteries, in turn, provided a haven from the world for pious men and women, as well as for social outcasts in need of assistance. One of the major contributions of the monastic members was their achievement in scholarship, providing instrumental books about hymnography, hagiography, and theology. Monastic centers encouraged a fiercely intellectual environment, requiring literacy of brothers and sisters and creating major libraries." Important site.
- Early Medieval Monasticism
- "The monks became the heroes of early medieval Europe for a number of reasons. They had clearly dedicated their lives to the devotion of God. Their lives served as examples for others. They also provided a sense of security in a world that always seemed on the brink of tumult and catastrophe. They founded an organization, the monastery, which allowed them to live communally -- some monks worked the earth, some copied and illuminated manuscripts, while still others read and studied. And, of course, because of their asceticism, the monks became the vehicles of economic and cultural change -- they helped teach medieval Europe to save and invest for the future. Of course, what the monks and their monasteries meant for Europe in, say, 800, meant something vastly different more than 700 years later when the Christian humanist, Erasmus, could write of the monks that "they are so detested that it is considered bad luck if one crosses your path."
- Regia Anglorum - Monastic Life in Anglo-Saxon England
- "Monasteries were places where men could go and devote their entire life to God. Most of their waking hours were governed by a set of rules, laid down by St Benedict in the sixth century. Since the latin for a rule is 'regula', they are usually known as 'regular clergy'. In contrast, the priests were called 'secular clergy', from the latin 'saecularis', meaning 'of the world' - in other words, they were not shut up in a monastery all the time. Monastic life was not easy. The Rule of Saint Benedict really does account for every hour of a monk's life, with prayer and work. The work the monks initially had to do was first in the field, or building the monastery, but later the monks began the important task of copying and translating manuscripts. Their life was supposed to be spent entirely inside the monastery, with little contact with the outside world, as the following extract from the Rule shows: 'When brethren return from a journey, they should lie prostrate on the floor of the oratory and ask for the prayers of all for any faults that may have overtaken them on their journey, such as the sight or hearing of an evil thing or idle chatter.'"
- Medieval Monks
- How to become a monk, life in the dining room, the chapel, the scriptorium. See also "LIFE" HERE. and also Here.
THE MONASTAIC REALM. The collapse of the Roman Empire
led to a period of instability and invasions. Both the Frankish Merovingian
dynasty (486-751) and the Carolingians (751-987) were unable to bring more
than spasmodic periods of political calm. Throughout this turbulent period,
the Church provided an element of continuity. As centres for Christian
scholars and artists, the monasteries helped to restore the values of the
ancient world. They also developed farming and viticulture and some became
extremly powerful, dominating the country economically as well as
spiritually.
- Life in a Medieval
Monastery
- "Monastic life was generally one of hard physical work, scholarship and prayer. Some orders encouraged the presence of "lay brothers", monks who did most of the physical labour in the fields and workshops of the monastery so that the full-fledged monks could concentrate on prayer and learning. The day of a monk or nun, in theory at least, was regulated by regular prayer services in the abbey church. These services took place every three hours, day and night. When the services were over, monks would be occupied with all the tasks associated with maintaining a self-sustaining community. Abbeys grew their own food, did all their own building, and in some cases, grew quite prosperous doing so. Fountains Abbey and Rievaulx, both in Yorkshire, grew to be enormously wealthy, largely on the basais of raising sheep and selling the wool. Throughout the Dark Ages and Medieval period the monasteries were practically the only repository of scholarship and learning. The monks were by far the best educated mermbers of society - often they were the only educated members of society. Monasteries acted as libraries for ancient manuscripts, and many monks were occupied with laboriously copying sacred texts."
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CATHEDRALS, CHAPELS, CHURCHES, THE GOTHIC, GARGOYLES
- A Brief History and Introduction to Westminster Abbey
- Architectural masterpiece of the 13th-16th C., Westminster Abbey is home to innumerable tombs of English Kings, Queens and other famous persons. Every coronation since 1066, the Abbey is a living part of English history. Take virtual tour, visit shrine of Edward the Confessor and the Henry VII chapel. If you're interested in cathedrals, site is important.
- Churches in Brussels
- Part of the Belgium Travel Network, includes photos/descriptions of three of Brussel's magnificent Middle Age Cathedrals.
- Gargoyles Then and Now
- "What are these fantastic monsters doing in the cloisters under the very eyes of the brothers as they read? What is the meaning of these unclean monkeys, strange savage lions and monsters?"-- St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Interesting compilation of black/white photographs of gargoyles, brief description of pagan roots, symbolic meaning and function in medieval architecture.
- Gothic Dreams
- Immersive exploration of gothic architecture. Part of wonderful Earthlore Exploration series. On-line photographic galleries, cathedral profiles and detailed cathedral design section will floor you (pun intended). Truly astounding, inspiring site.
- St. John the Divine - NYC - Pilgrimage to the Middle Ages
- The world's largest gothic cathedral - and in NYC! Take the excellent tour.
- A Walk Around Winchester Cathedral
- Quality photos illustrate well written descriptions of history of Winchester - once England's capital - and the famous 800 year old cathedral. So well conceived it feels experiential.
- Welcome to the Virtual Sistine Chapel
- Michelangelo Buonarroti commissioned by Pope Julius II della Rovere in 1508 to repaint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel completing his work between 1508 and 1512. Clear, crisp graphics of Michelangelo's exquisite artwork make up for the busy wallpaper. You could not get a better view if you were standing in the Sistine Chapel itself.
THE CRUSADES
- The Crusades 1
- "In a more inclusive sense, the Crusades include several other important contributing factors: The reconquest of Spain and Sicily from he Moslems; * The extension of the Christian frontier in the Baltic region to take in Lithuanians, Estonians, Prussians and Finns; * Christian missions to convert the Mongols and other Eastern peoples; * Concurrent with the Crusades was the effort to convert or eliminate the Jews within Europe that led ultimately to their expulsion from many parts of the West. "The Crusades inspired the most dedicated valor, the most bloodthirsty cruelty, and the greediest vandalism of medieval men. They offered the fullest opportunity for combined fulfillment of Germanic heroic aspirations and Christian ideals of brotherhood and self-sacrifice."
- The Crusades 2
- "The Crusades were a
series of campaigns against Islam and against heretics and troublemakers
in Europe itself. They were lead by kings, princes, knights and papal
legates as well as by shepherd and hermits on unique occasions. They were
not always under direct control of the Church, a fact which caused much
distress to a number of Popes. Different motives influenced those who
journeyed to the Holy Land, and they were not always religious ones. The
Church offered many incentives to encourage men to take the Cross. These
included remission from sins, protection for the Crusaders' families,
freedom from law suits and exemption from interest on loans authorized by
the Church."
"The Crusades, then, were more than just campaigns in a Holy War against Islam. Religious fervour was not the only motive and the actual Crusades rarely went according to plan. The initial idea of fighting for Christ's birth-right gave way to combatting heretical Christians, pagans and "evil" rulers. The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade has been considered by many scholars the ultimate deviation from the original Crusading ideal. The failure of every Crusade after the First, the frequent degenerations into debauchery and drinking by members of the armies, emphasizes the abyss between the ideal and the reality of the Crusading movement. The inability to inspire commitment and establish a strong unified leadership or the strategy to defeat the Saracens on their own land, plagued each Crusade, dooming them to failure. Had those who organized them learned from previous mistakes, the result might have been different." - Account of the Battle of Hattin, ll87
- How the Sunni Muslims under the leadership of Saladin defeated the Latin forces at the Battle of Hattin. Written in a narrative form, as seen through the eyes of a local Frank, named "Ernoul." Gives readers the feelings that they are actually there.
- Childrens Crusade of 1213
- "The survival of the Crusading spirit during the century is further shown by the extraordinary movement in 1212 which is known as the Children's Crusade.This expedition which, of course, was not a Crusade at all in the strict sense of the term attracted thousands of children and young adults from northern France and western Germany to its banners. The "Crusade" was preached in France by a peasant boy named Stephen from a village near Vendome. In Germany, a boy named Nicholas from Cologne started the movement . The sorry business was summarized by a chronicler" on this site.
- History of the Crusades - One Person's Point of View
- "Rather" aggressively strong analysis. "Notwithstanding their final overthrow, the Crusades hold a very important place in the history of the world. Essentially the work of the popes, these Holy Wars first of all helped to strengthen pontifical authority; they afforded the popes an opportunity to interfere in the wars between Christian princes, while the temporal and spiritual privileges which they conferred upon crusaders virtually made the latter their subjects. At the same time this was the principal reason why so many civil rulers refused to join the Crusades. It must be said that the advantages thus acquired by the popes were for the common safety of Christendom. From the outset the Crusades were defensive wars and checked the advance of the Mohammedans who, for two centuries, concentrated their forces in a struggle against the Christian settlements in Syria; hence Europe is largely indebted to the Crusades for the maintenance of its independence. Besides, the Crusades brought about results of which the popes had never dreamed, and which were perhaps the most, important of all. They re-established traffic between the East and West, which, after having been suspended for several centuries, was then resumed with even greater energy; they were the means of bringing from the depths of their respective provinces and introducing into the most civilized Asiatic countries Western knights, to whom a new world was thus revealed, and who returned to their native land filled with novel ideas; they were instrumental in extending the commerce of the Indies, of which the Italian cities long held the monopoly, and the products of which transformed the material life of the West. Moreover, as early as the end of the twelfth century, the development of general culture in the West was the direct result of these Holy Wars."
- Chronology of the
Crusades
- The Crusades and the Rise of Islam
- Crusades in simple terms. Although somewhat simplistic, the crisp facts can be a helpful summary and review.
- Female Heroes: The Women Left Behind
- "The effect of the Crusades on women left behind to fend for themselves was dramatic. The absence of a husband, son or guardian could be as long as 10 years. Then there were the men who never returned. It is reported that in the second and third crusades perhaps 500,000 were lost, a significant drain on the male Christian population."
- Medieval Sourcebook- Crusades
- Over a hundred links organized in chronological order take reader through all the crusades, orders, with access to translations of key speeches and documents. Emphasize the period encompassed by the first four crusades, but includes comprehensive information encompassing the entire segment of history.
- Medieval Historiography: Rationalizing Strategies in Crusader Art
- "The era of the Great Crusades encompass two periods in the art in Europe. It spans the end of the Romanesque style and the beginning of Gothic art, the former ending around the middle of the 12th century."
- Siege and Capture of Jerusalem
- First hand accounts. Nasty, nasty stuff.
- Story of the First Crusade
- "The First Crusade began
on November 27, 1095, with a proclamation from Pope Urban II delivered to
clergy and lay folk who had gathered in a field in Clermont, central
France. His topic: an appeal for help that he had received from the
Byzantine Emperor, Alexius I Comnenus."
"Western Europe's most ambitious common enterprise and its most conspicuous failure was the attempt to bring together all mankind in Christian unity under the leadership of the pope. The most intense part of this enterprise and the one that enlisted the most widespread support in Europe from all levels of society was the Crusades. The Crusades in the narrow sense of the expeditions to conquer and hold the Holy Land for the West began at the end of the eleventh century and lasted throughout the remainder of the medieval period. "
BRITANNIA
- Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
- Fascinating (and massive) 52-part account of history covering the years 1 through 1154 AD from the point of view of the Anglo-Saxons. This is the COMPLETE TEXT. And here: The Anglo Saxon Chronicle
- Brief History of Anglo Saxon England
- After the Roman Empire crumbled, before the Norman Conquest, Anglo Saxon culture flourished in England. Depth of Anglo Saxon influence on subsequent English culture.
- The Battle of Hastings
- "The fight for Senlac Ridge on October 14th 1066 is probably the only battle date that most Englishmen can be expected to remember. Nearly a thousand years after the event, the memory of the resounding defeat of the last native Saxon King and his army rings down the centuries. But why did the battle take place? Why did William the Bastard, Duke of Normandy, think that he had a claim to the English throne in the first place. Or was it just an adventure; an enormous gamble that paid off and changed the course of world history in the course of an autumn day?"
- Battle of Hastings: An Account of the Battle That Altered World History
- "To gain a clear understanding of why the Battle of Hastings occurred, you should be aware of the political and cultural histories of England and Normandy before the battle, the intertwined relationships of England and Normandy, the relationship of the English royalty to the Norman dukes, and, lastly, the principal personalities: Harold Godwinson, Duke William, and Edward the Confessor. Armed with this knowledge, it will be very apparent why the battle occurred and why it was inevitable in the context of history, as history developed." Full-service site.
- Battle of Hastings 1066
- Extensive and detailed by a resident of Hastings. Background of Britain including Roman invasion, Saxon invasion, Christianity, Viking invasion, and kings of Britain. Geneology of Duke William and King Harold II. Causes of battle, contestants' prepartion and armies, maps and photographs of battle location, description of battle, and results. Norman rule. Bayeux Tapestry (description from the 11th century). Timeline, Glossary, and Bibliography. "Story of the Battle of Hastings that was fought on the 14th October 1066. An event so significant, it totally changed the course of English history. To speak about this battle without recourse to the events that led up to it would be an injustice to the people of this island who have fought and died for her. What makes this event so important to the English is the fact that it was the last time any foreign power was to conquer her. Without doubt, a lesson was learnt that became etched into this island race for ever."
- Britannia
- Quintessential British site. Messy and hard to use but a catalog of great Web links. Articles, essays on castles, kings, popes, Wales, abbots, archibishops, British monarchs, cathedrals, King Arthur, documents.
- Britannia's Narrative History of Britain
- The Anglo-Saxon Period, The Arthurian Period , Medieval Britain , From Reformation to Restoration and - The Age of Empire - First Rate Terse Historical Summarys.
- Britannica Sources of British History
- Repository of links to an incredible array of English historical source documents. St. Patrick's actual Confession, in his own hand; actual Magna Carta; laws of William the Conquerer. Eyewitness accounts of battles, rebellions, heroes and villains. Compelling reading. Humanizes history. "Britannia brings you the rich documentary history of England and Wales, so that you can begin to appreciate the foundation on which the present nation stands...Significant charters, histories, chronicles, accounts, laws and summonses."
- Magna Carta
- With the Magna Carta, King John placed himself and England's future sovereigns and magistrates within the rule of law. Read about this "charter of ancient liberties guaranteed by a king to his subjects." Translation of the 1297 version of Magna Carta.
- Secrets of the Norman Invasion
- Enormous informative source. The author writes: "The following work arose out of my insatiable desire to know exactly where the Normans landed prior to the Battle of Hastings." Surveys, photographs, field walking, archaeological work.
- Sub-Roman Britain: An Introduction
- ORB Online Essay by Christopher Snyder. Britannia in the fifth and six centuries.
- William the Conqueror
- "Reigned 1066-1087. Duke
of Normandy 1035-1087. Invaded England defeated and killed his rival
Harold at the Battle of Hastings and became King. The Norman conquest of
England was completed by 1072 aided by the establishment of feudalism
under which his followers were granted land in return for pledges of
service and loyalty."
- Back to Basics--A Series for Newer Ricardians
- "Background, major events, and principal players associated with that period of English history - the Wars of the Roses, the fall of the House of Lancaster and rise of the House of York, the Royal Bastards, and the life, times, and reign of Richard III.
- Not Guilty--Again!
- " Three Justices of the U.S. Supreme Court find Richard III Not Guilty Following Mock Trial Oral Argument Held at the U.S. Supreme Court...On June 4, 1997, the Lawyers' Committee for the Shakespeare Theater in Washington, D.C. sponsored a mock trial before three Justices of the U.S. Supreme Court and a large number of members of the Washington, D.C. Bar. Following oral arguments, Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist and Associate Justices Ruth Bader Ginsberg and Stephen G. Breyer, in a 3-0 decision, ruled that the prosecution had not met the burden of proof that 'it was more likely than not that the Princes in the Tower had been murdered; that the bones found in 1674 in the Tower were those of the Princes; and that Richard III had and that Richard III had ordered or was complicitous in their deaths." The defense lawyers put on a good show. The result? Go and see.
- Richard III - Brief Biography.
- "Four months into his reign he crushed a rebellion led by his former assistant Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, who sought the installation of Henry Tudor, a diluted Lancaster, to the throne. The rebellion was crushed, but Tudor gathered troops and attacked Richard's forces on August 22, 1485, at the battle of Bosworth Field. The last major battle of the Wars of the Roses, Bosworth Field became the death place of Richard III. Historians have been noticeably unkind to Richard, based on purely circumstantial evidence; Shakespeare portrays him as a complete monster in his play, Richard III. One thing is for certain, however: Richard's defeat and the cessation of the Wars of the Roses allowed the stability England required to heal, consolidate, and push into the modern era."
- RICHARD III AND YORKIST HISTORY SERVER
- The Richard III and Yorkist History Server, sponsored by the American Branch of the Richard III Society. Devoted to the study of King Richard III, "last of the medieval English kings the Wars of the Roses, a dynastic struggle in the later middle ages that pitted Yorkist against Lancastrian fifteenth-century England and its culture the reputation of Richard III in history, literature, and drama, especially Shakespeare." Excellent site.
- Richard III Society
- Thanks mainly to Shakespeare, England's Richard III (1452-1485), is known as the wicked, hunchbacked uncle who murdered his way to the throne. Site attempts to resurrect his reputation by exploring the events that surrounded his turbulent life. Uniquely English historic revisionism. Fun and surprisingly informative. Have an open mind and you'll be surprised at your reactions.
BRITANNIA
SCOTLAND
- Scottish History Online
- Visit the history of Scotland Online. A History of It's Modern, Medieval, Prehistoric, Pictish and Celtic past going back nearly 8000 years. A truly epic account of Scottish History from Scottish History Online.
- Nessie on the Net
- "Scotland's first and
official Loch Ness Monster Site." Includes webcam which updates every 120
seconds showing "the most famous monster hunting location of Urquhart
Castle." Also includes video streams of eyewitness interviews as well as a
"search Nessie' search engine.
Scottish Highlands and Islands- "The Celts were the first race to use the long sword and small shield (a type of buckler shield) in Europe. Previously, knives or daggers, short swords-as the Romans used-were the accepted "correct" way of fighting. This three and one-half foot long sword put fear in the Romans." Features Scottish , Medieval, Celtic History; Battles and Wars of England and Scotland. Scottish timeline from 7000 B.C. Key information on Medieval Witchcraft and Scottish origins. Detailsabout everyday life, religion and artforms. Decent section on the Vikings, Breton, and British Celts. Clan map of Scotland is definitely cool. Text heavy, but good.
ROYALTY
- The Monarchs of England
- Britannia Web biographies of the men and women who have ruled Britain since 802 AD. Listed by royal house, excellent articles contain genealogies, maps and links to prehistoric period and Roman period, Anglo-Saxons, Arthur, Medieval Britain, Reformation, myths and legends.
- Tudor England
- Did you know ...that the population in Tudor England was over 4 million people in 1599? ...what "government by seal" means? ...what the 5 types of mental diseases were in the early Tudor medical opinion? ...where Sir Walter Raleigh's head was kept for 29 years - after his execution in 1618? Simply click and go - the answers are at your fingertips.
- Tudors and Stuarts
- Great jump-off point to learn about Tudor and Stuart periods. The Tudor period "begins when Henry Tudor, a Lancastrian, defeated King Richard 111 at the battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 ending the War of the Roses." Monarchs, Protestant church beginnings, Bloody Mary, Spanish Armada, Elizabethan Age, Mary Queen of Scots, Civil War, The Restoration. Link to complete works of Shakespeare.
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The Housewife's Rich Cabinet: Remedies, Recipes, and Helpful Hints
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"Have you ever wondered how Shakespeare's contemporaries dealt with toothaches and other ills, with cleaning their houses and clothing, and preserving food? If so, come explore the contents of The Housewife's Rich Cabinet : her medicines, perfumes, cosmetics, cleaning solutions, pest controls, and preserving hints, as they are recorded in 90 books and manuscripts of the 16th through the 18th century now on display in the Library's Great Hall." Check this "helpful" place.
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"Tudor Food and Drink varied according to status and wealth. In the early Middle Ages period meat was a sign of wealth. But as the population rose in Tudor England so did the improved agricultural techniques and inventions. The Tudor era also saw the introductions of different food from the New World, and continued to be influenced by the foods imported from the Far East, just it had during the earlier period of the Crusades. The Tudor era saw the expanded use of sugar. Increased cultivation of fruit trees and bee hives in England was also seen during the Tudor era increasing the range of foods available. The section and era covering Tudor Food includes sections on food in the Tudor times, food in Tudor England, Tudor food recipes and Tudor food for a banquet or feast."
Thanks for joining me. 
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