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Each decade teaches us something new about the past. We find
new evidence about the past, which we assumed did not exist. But we are also
shaped by our experiences and enlarged by them, and thus our "templates"
for envisioning the past become sharper and more complex.
ONE THING FOR SURE: Western Civilization
ALERTS US TO THE REALITY that Indifference
is never benign, that it is active and vigorous and very killing and lethal.
In a time of potential indecency, what can global citizens do? Emily Dickinson
gave us all the charge when she wrote: "We must keep our souls terribly
surprised." I would add that we must educate our souls so that we can reach
out and we can act.
THE CENTURY BEFORE THE GREAT
WAR
The so-called free nations fought WWI to
end the old Congress of Berlin Cabal System and make the world safe for
democracies. The free nations of WESTERN CIVILIZATION fought the Axis powers
in WWII to remove the dreadful propensity of genocide, fascism, human abuse.
During the Cold War, the forces of light saw themselves fighting the forces
of darkness to keep the freedom of spirit alive. And in Eastern Europe, finally
- after so many had died, the West acknowledged that Human Abuse was alive
and well and that the fortunate nations held some strategic if not moral
responsible to intervene. As the 21st Century begins, the resolve is shaky
but evident, the successes hopeful but tenuous.
The Congress System of the 19th Century which seemed such an anachronism
in a 20th Century of Leagues of Nations, UN Nations, NATO, UNICEF is alive
and well. But rather than gather the malcontents, mischief makers, havoc
raisers to Berlin or Vienna to chastise and command, the Congress leaders
gather them to Dayton, Ohio to solve the Yugoslavian question. An interesting change of scenery to a nation
that has figured in Great Power Politics for such a short historical
time.
FRENCH REVOLUTION
"The revolution in France has captivated the imaginations of historians
since it exploded onto the European landscape two hundred years ago." Did
it succeed or fail? Professor Eugen Weber, on National Public Radio, recently
concluded that the French Revolution was destroyed by itself and by
Napoleon.
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Home of
the French Revolution
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"The
French Revolution was one of the most influential and significant
events in world history; it continues to fascinate people two centuries
after the people of France rebelled against their rulers. Why and how
the Revolution occurred, how it was lived, celebrated, resisted,
condemned, and suffered by men and women whose hopes and aspirations
were hardly different from their 20th-century counterparts. Letters,
poems, speeches, diaries, newspaper articles, movies, songs and videos
are some of the resources used to enlighten you as to the Revolution
and its events."
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The French Revolt and Empire:
1792-1815
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"In 1789, growing discontent with France's feudal
government suddenly exploded into an open revolt which drew the attention
of all the nations of Europe. The ensuing violence and international involvement
triggered more than two decades of nearly continuous warfare as various competing
empires sought to reimpose their own views of balanced power. So many related
military campaigns were fought over such large areas by so many different
factions, that this era has wryly been called the first true world war."
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French
Revolution Summary
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It began: "After years of increasing dissatisfaction with the way
they were treated by the royal family and aristocratic class, the people
of France moved towards improving their lot in life by the formation of a
National Assembly on 17 June 1789."
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July
14 1789 - The Storming of the Bastille
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" The time was half past three, on the famous date of July 14, 1789. A
huge, bloodthirsty mob marched to the Bastille, searching for gun powder
and prisoners that had been taken by the unpopular and detested King, Louis
XVI. Even elements of the newly formed National Guard were present at the
assault. The flying rumors of attacks from the government and the biting
truth of starvation were just too much for the angry crowds. The Bastille
had been prepared for over a week, anticipating about a hundred angry subjects
and along the thick rock walls of the gargantuan fortress and between the
towers were twelve more guns that were capable of launching 24-ounce case
shots at any who dared to attack. However, the enraged Paris Commune was
too defiant and too livid to submit to the starvation and seeming injustice
of their government. But nothing could have prepared the defenders for what
they met that now famous day." Then click
here for a summary
of the Revolution and the Bastille.
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The Great Fear of 1789 - Site Gone
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In July and August of 1789, a confused kind of rebellion broke out all
over rural France, then spread, as if along a powder-trail, to the kingdom's
cities: the Great Fear, it came to be called. As the French historian
Lenôtre points out, "the phenomenon remains a baffling one." "During
the momentous political events of 1788-89 much of the country lay in the
grip of a classic subsistence crisis. Bad weather had reduced the grain crops
that year by almost one-quarter the normal yield. An unusually cold winter
compounded the problem, as frozen rivers halted the transport and milling
of flour in many localities. Amidst fears of hoarding and profiteering, grain
and flour reserves dwindled. In Paris the price of the four-pound loaf of
bread--the standard item of consumption accounting for most of the population's
calories and nutrition--rose from its usual 8 sous to 14 sous by January
1789. This intolerable trend set off traditional forms of popular protest.
If royal officials did not assure basic food supplies at affordable prices,
then people would act directly to seize food. During the winter and spring
of 1789 urban consumers and peasants rioted at bakers and markets and attacked
millers and grain convoys. Then, in July, this anxiety merged with the looming
political crisis at Versailles. Parisians believed that food shortages and
royal troops would be used in tandem to starve the people and overwhelm them
into submission. They feared an 'aristocratic plot' to throttle the patriot
cause."
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The Decree Abolishing
the Feudal System August 11, 1789
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"The abolition of the feudal system, which took place during the famous
night session of August 4-5, 1789, was caused by the reading of a report
on the misery and disorder which prevailed in the provinces. The report
declares that 'Letters from all the provinces indicate that property
of all kinds is a prey to the most criminal violence; on all sides
chateaux are being burned, convents destroyed, and farms abandoned to pillage.
The taxes, the feudal dues, all are extinct; the laws are without force,
and the magistrates without authority.' With the hope of pacifying and
encouraging the people, the Assembly, in a fervor of enthusiasm and excitement,
straightway abolished many of the ancient abuses. This document
is the revised decree, completed a week later."
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The
Men and Women of the FR - Biographies
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Modern
History Sourcebook: Olympe de Gouge: Declaration of the Rights of Women,
1791
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"Olympe de Gouges, a butcher's daughter, proved to be one of the most
outspoken and articulate women revolutionaries. In 1791 she wrote the following
declaration, directly challenging the inferiority presumed of women by the
Declaration of the Rights of Man. Her attempts to push this idea lead to
her being charged with treason during the rule of the National Convention.
She was quickly arrested, tried, and on November 3, 1793, executed by the
guillotine."
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Declaration of
the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
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Text of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, drawn
up by the National Assembly. August 26
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First
Revolution
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Estates General, National Assembly, capture of the Bastille, the Great
Fear, Declaration of the Rights of Man, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy,
the Constitution of 1791, economic reforms.
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French Revolution and Empire:
1792-1815
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Excellent summary with a strong conclusion. "As with other wars
which involved great internal strife, the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic
Wars left a rancorous legacy of conflict. After 1815, the Allied victors
continued to paint Napoleon as 'The Monster' even though the wars had already
been in full swing when he came on the scene, and despite their own attacks
on countries large and small. Napoleon and his indomitable ego certainly
lengthened the wars, and like most other leaders of that era, his actions
caused the unnecessary deaths of thousands. In the end though, it is difficult
to separate his actions from other leaders of his time. People of that era
continued to have a romantic view of war which was only abandoned after the
consecutive slaughters of WWII and WWII, and all shared
in the guilt for the 23 years of war which began in 1792 because of the overthrow
of a French Monarch."
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Maxmilien
Robespierre
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"The dominant figure of the FR, M. Robespierre,
was a fanatical republican who thought the end justified the means."
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Robespierre
- Modern History Sourcebook
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" Maximilien Robespierre (1758 1794) was the leader of the Committee of Public Safety elected by the National Convention,
and which effectively governed France at the height of the radical phase
of the revolution. He had once been a fairly straightforward liberal thinker
- reputedly he slept with a copy of Rousseau's Social Contract at his side.
But his own purity of belief led him to impatience with others.The committee
was among the most creative executive bodies ever seen - and rapidly put
into effect policies which stabilized the French economy and began the formation
of the very successful French army. It also directed it energies against
counter-revolutionary uprisings, especially in the south and west of France.
In doing so it unleashed the reign of terror. Here Robespierre, in his speech
of 2/ 5, 1794, discussed this issue.
The figures behind this speech indicate that in the five months from September,
1793, to February 5, 1794, the revolutionary tribunal in Paris convicted
and executed 238 men and 31 women and acquitted 190 persons, and that on
February 5 there were 5,434 individuals in the prisons in Paris awaiting
trial. "
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Louis XVI
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"History has not been kind to Louis XVI; in fact, history is rarely kind
to the losers. He is painted as vain, unintelligent, and ineffectual, so
clueless that on the day the Bastille was seized by Revolutionaries, he wrote
in his diary, "Rien," "Nothing happened." It's difficult, however, to really
assign any blame. The Revolution itself was an extraordinarly complicated
affair; it was principally lit by the antagonisms between the first two and
the Third Estate, antagonisms rooted in decades of abuse and frustration.
It is certain that Louis XVI failed to maintain the centralization of power;
all the forces in France were conspiring to fragment power away from the
monarchy." Excellent summary of events leading to the Revolution.
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Marie Antoinette
& Charlotte Corday:
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A Whore and a Murderer ? Very interesting page compares Marie Antoinette
and Charlotte Corday. Marie's
biography
: "Although it was true that the French Revolution of 1789 began
because of economic, political, and social troubles for the masses,
there were particular people who helped fuel the movement by increasing
the anger of the French people. One of these people was Queen Marie
Antoinette, who had become one of the most hated people in France by
the time the Revolution came." And, "Marie Antoinette was a
scapegoat during the years leading up to the FR. Her reputation for
infidelity and wastefulness was used by her enemies to infuriate the
masses against the monarchy. She had been made a symbol of hatred to
all of France. It is true that Marie did not deserve the degree
of abuse she received from her subjects for she was not completely
guilty of all wrongdoing." But "Antoinette could not erase her
mistakes because the damage had already been done. She ultimately
created her own demise."
Charlotte's
biography:
"Adding to the fervor of the French Revolution, Charlotte Corday followed
Queen Marie Antoinette to the guillotine. Because Corday had decided to
assassinate Jean-Paul Marat, there is no doubt as to the cause of her demise.
While Antoinette was executed for her reputation, Corday was beheaded for
committing the act of murder. In the chaos of the Revolution of 1789,
atrocities and murder were the constant companion of the French people. However,
one murder is particularly interesting because scholars frequently neglect
the roles of women, who also contributed to the frenzy. Charlotte Corday
was an attractive young woman who shocked the country by murdering a leader
of the Paris Commune and Jacobin Party by the name of Jean-Paul Marat. Although
she had believed that she was saving France from the ruthless tyrant, she
did not realize the futility of her efforts. Corday, a Norman member
of the nobility of the sword, was an idealistic romanticist . . . " ! !.-
Counter-Revolution
in Europe
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"From its beginning, the revolution
was not universally accepted in France or in Europe in general. There were
throughout France many who disagreed with the innovations of the
Revolution—some were aristocrats whose privileges were threatened, but
others were intellectuals and common people who supported the monarchy. A
number of Europeans declared the revolution to be the future of Europe, and
revolutionary talk became the rage among European intellectuals schooled
in the thought of the philosophes. The bulk of Europeans, however, were
repulsed by the revolution and sympathized with the plight of Louis XVI and
his family."
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The Radical
Revolution: Excellent Historical Summary
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Girondists, Jacobins, the common folk, the Reign of Terror, the Thermidorean
Reaction.
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Revolution and
After
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One scholar's controversial analysis of the revolution: "The revolution in
France has captivated the imaginations of historians since it exploded the
European landscape two hundred years ago. There are few if any events in
European history that are regarded as fundamental to the character of the
European world as the giddy, frightening, farcical, and overwhelmingly tragic
events during and after the French Revolution. It may be that the event has
been grossly overestimated. It was, after all, a complete failure; it ended
the monarchy in France, but it ended in a different monarchy so repugnant
and violent that the sloppy laziness of the eighteenth century monarchy simply
palled in relation to the calculated violence of the years of Napolean's
emperorship.
- The ideas of the revolution were not new; in fact, the revolution
itself was simply a gathering point, a boiling pot in which ideas of the
Enlightenment and the philosophes erupted into a single action. The ideas
that originated during the revolution bordered on the farcical. In their
efforts to remake society based on individuality and rights, the French reformers
insanely went about changing the days of the months and even instituting
a church of Reason. In fact, if the cost had not been the loss of thousands
of innocent, terrified lives, lives snuffed out at the mere whims of their
accusers, the Revolution itself was little more than ludicrous farce played
out on the stage of European history.
- But the Revolution was not an innocent
affair; like the First World War, its sheer stupidity and ludicrousness
got swallowed up in an ocean of blood and a flood of terror. While no event
in European history is more important in the eventual formation of the modern
state, the Revolutionaries and Napolean to follow also gave birth to modern
mass destruction of human life. In sheer volume of lives lost, they are on
a par with the violence of the Third Reich in the twentieth century."
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The
Guillotine
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"Debate rages over whether the quickness of the execution was humane or
not, as many doctors put forward the notion that it could take up to 30 seconds
before the victim lost consciousness." "Until the French Revolution, France had no official
means of capital punishment. Several popular methods of the time included
hanging, often from street lampposts; burning at the stake, which was St
Joan of Arc's untimely demise; quartering, execution by tying the condemned
to four wild horses and sending them gallopping off in opposite directions
(ripping the condemned into quarters); death upon the rack, a slow and merciless
death; death by drowning, where the condemned was held underwater for extended
periods of time; as well as death by torture. As you can see, the judicial
system of France was a kind and benevolent system. One method was used quite
often: death by decapitation. Yet at the time, this form of execution was
sloppy at best. On many occasions, the executioner's ax missed the neck,
and it took several strokes to do the job. Once, the executioner even had
to take out his dagger and stab the victim to death."
NAPOLEON: THE LITTLE CORSICAN
Few leaders in history have so captured the imagination of historians.
Was he a dedicated genius who brought freedom and laws and civilization to
Europe? Or was he, as Eugen Weber recently claimed, "a murderous meglomanic
of genius."
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Napoleon Foundation Presents
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Dedicated to the study and diffusion of the civil and military achievements
of the First and Second Empires. Remarkable site. "Depending on your
inclinations, you may choose to be entertained or informed at Exhibitions
in the Museum, or to do research at the Documentation Centre...which offers
you a rich selection of articles and iconography (already more than 400 items).
You could also choose to visit the filmography. . .
Huge data bases, library and museum links. Chronologies, photo trips
to all the major places in Napoleon's life, really remarkable "day trips"
online to parts and places of Napoleon's life, interviews, a club to join.
This is serious stuff! A TOUR DE FORCE.
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The Napoleon Guide
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Easy-to-navigate online magazine that offers broad coverage of the fascinating
era of Napoleon Bonaparte. His
career:
"One of the most brilliant individuals in history, Napoleon Bonaparte
was a masterful soldier, grand tactician, sublime statesman and exceedingly
capable administrator." (Excellent article on his life). Followed
by his Opponents, his Marshals, and of course, his
loves.(biographies).
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THE MAN, HIS MIND, AND THE
TIMES
Capsule History
of Napoleonic Literature
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"More books have been written about Napoleon than any other figure in
history. Between 1815 and 1900, more than 100,000 titles were produced."
Why have so many books been written? First and foremost was Napoleon's impact
on history. During the period 1800-1815, almost every significant event
in European history was the result of an action initiated by Napoleon. The
Napoleonic Wars were the greatest event in the 19th Century and, as such,
people literally devoured everything that was written concerning Napoleon
and the Napoleonic Wars."
WESTERN CIVILIZATION: ACT III
WESTCIV SOURCES/AIDS
History 4A - WESTERN CIVILIZATION: THE ANCIENT WORLD
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