-
Each decade teaches us something new about the past. We find
new evidence about the past, which we assumed did not exist. But we are also
shaped by our experiences and enlarged by them, and thus our "templates"
for envisioning the past become sharper and more complex.
ONE THING FOR SURE: Western Civilization
ALERTS US TO THE REALITY that Indifference
is never benign, that it is active and vigorous and very killing and lethal.
In a time of potential indecency, what can global citizens do? Emily Dickinson
gave us all the charge when she wrote: "We must keep our souls terribly
surprised." I would add that we must educate our souls so that we can reach
out and we can act.
Alert: Important Student Contributions. Credit must
be given for the deepening of this 19th-Early 20th century to several
outstanding Foothill College Online Students: Bonnie Hunter, Audrey Diaz,
Yehoy Lee, Kyra Peyton, Daniel Takata, Sonja Wilson, Daniel Peo, Sheree Lee,
Sara Roma, Mike McCullough, Marc Wilkerson, Astrid Terlep, Jill
Stack.
EUROPEAN ROYALS
AND THEIR DESTINIES
-
Alexander Palace
Time Machine: A SPECIAL PLACE
-
Alexander Palace, home of the last Tsar. Tour the Palace Parade Rooms,
rooms of Nickolas II, Rooms of Aleksandra, childrens rooms, palace treasures,
Faberge, the palace today, history of the characters in the story.
-
Faberge Eggs
Collection
-
Joan's Favourite
Royals
-
Click to her Royals List of sites for specific country monarchies.
-
Mad Monarch
Series
-
Marivi's Royalty
Page
-
The Official British Monarch
Page
-
The Unofficial British Royalty
Family Page
-
Seems to have everything!
-
Royal Descents
of Famous People
-
Royalty In History
Page
-
Tower of London Virtual
Tour
THE CENTURY BEFORE THE GREAT
WAR
The so-called free nations fought WWI to
end the old Congress of Berlin Cabal System and make the world safe for
democracies. The free nations of WESTERN CIVILIZATION fought the Axis powers
in WWII to remove the dreadful propensity of genocide, fascism, human abuse.
During the Cold War, the forces of light saw themselves fighting the forces
of darkness to keep the freedom of spirit alive. And in Eastern Europe, finally
- after so many had died, the West acknowledged that Human Abuse was alive
and well and that the fortunate nations held some strategic if not moral
responsible to intervene. As the 21st Century begins, the resolve is shaky
but evident, the successes hopeful but tenuous.
The Congress System of the 19th Century which seemed such an anachronism
in a 20th Century of Leagues of Nations, UN Nations, NATO, UNICEF is alive
and well. But rather than gather the malcontents, mischief makers, havoc
raisers to Berlin or Vienna to chastise and command, the Congress leaders
gather them to Dayton, Ohio. An interesting change of scenery to a nation
that has figured in Great Power Politics for such a short historical
time.
FRENCH REVOLUTION
"The revolution in France has captivated the imaginations of historians
since it exploded onto the European landscape two hundred years ago." Did
it succeed or fail? Professor Eugen Weber, on National Public Radio, recently
concluded that the French Revolution was destroyed by itself and by
Napoleon.
-
-
French Revolution and Empire:
1792-1815
-
Excellent summary analysis with a damning conclusion. "As with other wars
which involved great internal strife, the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic
Wars left a rancorous legacy of conflict. After 1815, the Allied victors
continued to paint Napoleon as "The Monster" even though the wars had already
been in full swing when he came on the scene, and despite their own attacks
on countries large and small. Napoleon and his indomitable ego certainly
lengthened the wars, and like most other leaders of that era, his actions
caused the unnecessary deaths of thousands. In the end though, it is difficult
to separate his actions from other leaders of his time. People of that era
continued to have a romantic view of war which was only abandoned after the
consecutive slaughters of World War One and World War Two, and all shared
in the guilt for the 23 years of war which began in 1792 because of the overthrow
of a French Monarch."
-
Home of
the French Revolution
-
"The French Revolution was one of the most influential and significant
events in world history; it continues to fascinate people two centuries after
the people of France rebelled against their rulers. Our web site has been
designed to elaborate on many aspects of the French Revolution. It covers
why and how the Revolution occurred, how it was lived, celebrated, resisted,
condemned, and suffered by men and women whose hopes and aspirations were
hardly different from their 20th-century counterparts. Letters, poems, speeches,
diaries, newspaper articles, movies, songs and videos are some of the resources
used to enlighten you as to the Revolution and its events." Superb
comprehensive site. Hope, Fear, Terror, Recovery.
-
Napoleonic Guide's French
Revolution Summary
-
It began: "After years of increasing dissatisfaction with the way
they were treated by the royal family and aristocratic class, the people
of France moved towards improving their lot in life by the formation of a
National Assembly on 17 June 1789."
-
July
14 1789 - The Storming of the Bastille
-
" The time was half past three, on the famous date of July 14, 1789. A
huge, bloodthirsty mob marched to the Bastille, searching for gun powder
and prisoners that had been taken by the unpopular and detested King, Louis
XVI. Even elements of the newly formed National Guard were present at the
assault. The flying rumors of attacks from the government and the biting
truth of starvation were just too much for the angry crowds. The Bastille
had been prepared for over a week, anticipating about a hundred angry subjects
and along the thick rock walls of the gargantuan fortress and between the
towers were twelve more guns that were capable of launching 24-ounce case
shots at any who dared to attack. However, the enraged Paris Commune was
too defiant and too livid to submit to the starvation and seeming injustice
of their government. But nothing could have prepared the defenders for what
they met that now famous day." Then click
here for a summary
of the Revolution and the Bastille.
-
The Great Fear of 1789 - Site Gone - Bit Info Left
Up
-
In July and August of 1789, a confused kind of rebellion broke out all
over rural France, then spread, as if along a powder-trail, to the kingdom's
cities: the Great Fear, it came to be called. As the French historian
Lenôtre points out, "the phenomenon remains a baffling one." "During
the momentous political events of 1788-89 much of the country lay in the
grip of a classic subsistence crisis. Bad weather had reduced the grain crops
that year by almost one-quarter the normal yield. An unusually cold winter
compounded the problem, as frozen rivers halted the transport and milling
of flour in many localities. Amidst fears of hoarding and profiteering, grain
and flour reserves dwindled. In Paris the price of the four-pound loaf of
bread--the standard item of consumption accounting for most of the population's
calories and nutrition--rose from its usual 8 sous to 14 sous by January
1789. This intolerable trend set off traditional forms of popular protest.
If royal officials did not assure basic food supplies at affordable prices,
then people would act directly to seize food. During the winter and spring
of 1789 urban consumers and peasants rioted at bakers and markets and attacked
millers and grain convoys. Then, in July, this anxiety merged with the looming
political crisis at Versailles. Parisians believed that food shortages and
royal troops would be used in tandem to starve the people and overwhelm them
into submission. They feared an 'aristocratic plot' to throttle the patriot
cause."
-
The Decree Abolishing
the Feudal System August 11, 1789
-
"The abolition of the feudal system, which took place during the famous
night session of August 4-5, 1789, was caused by the reading of a report
on the misery and disorder which prevailed in the provinces. The report
declares that " Letters from all the provinces indicate that property
of all kinds is a prey to the most(p. 405) criminal violence; on all sides
chateaux are being burned, convents destroyed, and farms abandoned to pillage.
The taxes, the feudal dues, all are extinct; the laws are without force,
and the magistrates without authority." With the hope of pacifying and
encouraging the people, the Assembly, in a fervor of enthusiasm and excitement,
straightway abolished many of the ancient abuses. The document here given
is the revised decree, completed a week later."
-
The
Men and Women of the FR - Biographies
-
Modern
History Sourcebook: Olympe de Gouge: Declaration of the Rights of Women,
1791
-
"Olympe de Gouges, a butcher's daughter, proved to be one of the most
outspoken and articulate women revolutionaries. In 1791 she wrote the following
declaration, directly challenging the inferiority presumed of women by the
Declaration of the Rights of Man. Her attempts to push this idea lead to
her being charged with treason during the rule of the National Convention.
She was quickly arrested, tried, and on November 3, 1793, executed by the
guillotine."
-
Declaration of
the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
-
Text of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, drawn
up by the National Assembly. August 26
-
First
Revolution
-
Estates General, National Assembly, capture of the Bastille, the Great
Fear, Declaration of the Rights of Man, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy,
the Constitution of 1791, economic reforms.
-
Reign
of Terror - ETAL!
-
Excellent assistance. But not just on this French Revolution topic.
On several. Including the "Let them eact cake" myth.
-
The French Revolt and Empire:
1792-1815
-
Good summary. "In 1789, growing discontent with France's feudal
government suddenly exploded into an open revolt which drew the attention
of all the nations of Europe. The ensuing violence and international involvement
triggered more than two decades of nearly continuous warfare as various competing
empires sought to reimpose their own views of balanced power. So many related
military campaigns were fought over such large areas by so many different
factions, that this era has wryly been called the first true world war."
-
-
Maxmilien
Robespierre
-
"The dominant figure of the French Revolution, Maximilien Robespierre,
was a fanatical republican who thought the end justified the means."
-
Robespierre
- Modern History Sourcebook
-
" Maximilien Robespierre (1758 1794) was the leader of the
twelveman Committee of Public Safety elected by the National Convention,
and which effectively governed France at the height of the radical phase
of the revolution. He had once been a fairly straightforward liberal thinker
- reputedly he slept with a copy of Rousseau's Social Contract at his side.
But his own purity of belief led him to impatience with others.The committee
was among the most creative executive bodies ever seen - and rapidly put
into effect policies which stabilized the French economy and began the formation
of the very successful French army. It also directed it energies against
counter-revolutionary uprisings, especially in the south and west of France.
In doing so it unleashed the reign of terror. Here Robespierre, in his speech
of February 5,1794, from which excerpts are given here, discussed this issue.
The figures behind this speech indicate that in the five months from September,
1793, to February 5, 1794, the revolutionary tribunal in Paris convicted
and executed 238 men and 31 women and acquitted 190 persons, and that on
February 5 there were 5,434 individuals in the prisons in Paris awaiting
trial. "
-
Louis XVI
-
"History has not been kind to Louis XVI; in fact, history is rarely kind
to the losers. He is painted as vain, unintelligent, and ineffectual, so
clueless that on the day the Bastille was seized by Revolutionaries, he wrote
in his diary, "Rien," "Nothing happened." It's difficult, however, to really
assign any blame. The Revolution itself was an extraordinarly complicated
affair; it was principally lit by the antagonisms between the first two and
the Third Estate, antagonisms rooted in decades of abuse and frustration.
It is certain that Louis XVI failed to maintain the centralization of power;
all the forces in France were conspiring to fragment power away from the
monarchy." Excellent summary of events leading to the Revolution.
-
Marie Antoinette
& Charlotte Corday:
-
A Whore and a Murderer ? Very interesting page compares Marie Antoinette
and Charlotte Corday. Marie's
biography
: "Although it was true that the French Revolution of 1789 began because
of economic, political, and social troubles for the masses, there were particular
people who helped fuel the movement by increasing the anger of the French
people. One of these people was Queen Marie Antoinette, who had become one
of the most hated people in France by the time the Revolution came." And,
"Marie Antoinette was a scapegoat during the years leading up to the French
Revolution. Her reputation for infidelity and wastefulness was used by her
enemies to infuriate the masses against the monarchy. She had been made a
symbol of hatred to all of France. It is true that Antoinette did not deserve
the degree of abuse she received from her subjects for she was not completely
guilty of all wrongdoing." But "Antoinette could not erase her mistakes
because the damage had already been done. She ultimately created her own
demise."
Charlotte's
biography:
"Adding to the fervor of the French Revolution, Charlotte Corday followed
Queen Marie Antoinette to the guillotine. Because Corday had decided to
assassinate Jean-Paul Marat, there is no doubt as to the cause of her demise.
While Antoinette was executed for her reputation, Corday was beheaded for
committing the act of murder. In the chaos of the Revolution of 1789,
atrocities and murder were the constant companion of the French people. However,
one murder is particularly interesting because scholars frequently neglect
the roles of women, who also contributed to the frenzy. Charlotte Corday
was an attractive young woman who shocked the country by murdering a leader
of the Paris Commune and Jacobin Party by the name of Jean-Paul Marat. Although
she had believed that she was saving France from the ruthless tyrant, she
did not realize the futility of her efforts. Corday, a Norman member
of the nobility of the sword, was an idealistic romanticist . . . " ! !.
-
Marie Antoinette
- Her Life
-
Details on Marie Antoinette's life, including her tastes in art, music
and food. And a comparison with Hillary Clinton!
-
Counter-Revolution
in Europe
-
Response and war. A snippet: "From its beginning, the revolution
was not universally accepted in France or in Europe in general. There were
throughout France many who disagreed with the innovations of the
Revolution—some were aristocrats whose privileges were threatened, but
others were intellectuals and common people who supported the monarchy. A
number of Europeans declared the revolution to be the future of Europe, and
revolutionary talk became the rage among European intellectuals schooled
in the thought of the philosophes . The bulk of Europeans, however, were
repulsed by the revolution and sympathized with the plight of Louis XVI and
his family."
-
The
Palace of Versailles
-
The Palace of Versailles: "The Palace of Versailles was the official
residence of the Kings of France from 1682 until 1790. It was originally
a hunting lodge, but was expanded by Louis XIV beginning in 1669. The French
classical architecture was complemented by extensive gardens. The palace
was stripped of most of it's furnishings during the French Revolution, and
Tuileries in Paris became the royal residence. Versailles is now a national
museum." Then summaries of the Bastille, King Louis XVI ,
Robespierre, the Assemblies, Marat.
-
The Radical
Revolution: Excellent Historical Summary
-
Girondists, Jacobins, the common folk, the Reign of Terror, the Thermidorean
Reaction.
-
Revolution and
After
-
Superb summary essay. Here is just a tidbit! "The revolution in
France has captivated the imaginations of historians since it exploded the
European landscape two hundred years ago. There are few if any events in
European history that are regarded as fundamental to the character of the
European world as the giddy, frightening, farcical, and overwhelmingly tragic
events during and after the French Revolution. It may be that the event has
been grossly overestimated. It was, after all, a complete failure; it ended
the monarchy in France, but it ended in a different monarchy so repugnant
and violent that the sloppy laziness of the eighteenth century monarchy simply
palled in relation to the calculated violence of the years of Napolean's
emperorship. The ideas of the revolution were not new; in fact, the revolution
itself was simply a gathering point, a boiling pot in which ideas of the
Enlightenment and the philosophes erupted into a single action. The ideas
that originated during the revolution bordered on the farcical. In their
efforts to remake society based on individuality and rights, the French reformers
insanely went about changing the days of the months and even instituting
a church of Reason. In fact, if the cost had not been the loss of thousands
of innocent, terrified lives, lives snuffed out at the mere whims of their
accusers, the Revolution itself was little more than ludicrous farce played
out on the stage of European history. But the Revolution was not an innocent
affair; like the First World War, its sheer stupidity and ludicrousness
got swallowed up in an ocean of blood and a flood of terror. While no event
in European history is more important in the eventual formation of the modern
state, the Revolutionaries and Napolean to follow also gave birth to modern
mass destruction of human life. In sheer volume of lives lost, they are on
a par with the violence of the Third Reich in the twentieth century."
-
Welcome to the
Guillotine
-
"Take a jump back in the History of the guillotine, or see more about
the construction. You can also see more pictures of the guillotine in the
Gallery." Information on people related to the guillotine in one way or another.
It was not invented by Dr Guillotine. He did propose a machine for mechanical
beheading to the Assembly, and his name got stuck with the machine.
-
Dr. Guillotine
-
"Doctor Joseph Ignace Guillotine was a man with the right idea of the
time. He lived in an age of chaos and fury, when death was as common as seing
a neighbor on the street. Most of the time, however, death came at the hands
of an executioner. But until the French Revolution, France had no official
means of capital punishment. Several popular methods of the time included
hanging, often from street lampposts; burning at the stake, which was St
Joan of Arc's untimely demise; quartering, execution by tying the condemned
to four wild horses and sending them gallopping off in opposite directions
(ripping the condemned into quarters); death upon the rack, a slow and merciless
death; death by drowning, where the condemned was held underwater for extended
periods of time; as well as death by torture. As you can see, the judicial
system of France was a kind and benevolent system. One method was used quite
often: death by decapitation. Yet at the time, this form of execution was
sloppy at best. On many occasions, the executioner's ax missed the neck,
and it took several strokes to do the job. Once, the executioner even had
to take out his dagger and stab the victim to death." Site kaput but information
interesting.
-
The
Guillotine
-
"Debate rages over whether the quickness of the execution was humane or
not, as many doctors put forward the notion that it could take up to 30 seconds
before the victim lost consciousness."
-
Women in
the French Revolution
-
"The Failure of the Parisian Women's Movement," Jenifer Clark. Scroll
down to this excellent scholarly article.
NAPOLEON: THE LITTLE CORSICAN
Few leaders in history have so captured the imagination of historians.
Was he a dedicated genius who brought freedom and laws and civilization to
Europe? Or was he, as Eugen Weber recently claimed, "a murderous meglomanic
of genius."
-
Napoleon Foundation Presents
-
Dedicated to the study and diffusion of the civil and military achievements
of the First and Second Empires. Remarkable site. "Depending on your
inclinations, you may choose to be entertained or informed at Exhibitions
in the Museum, or to do research at the Documentation Centre...which offers
you a rich selection of articles and iconography (already more than 400 items).
You could also choose to visit the filmography. . .
Huge data bases, library and museum links. Chronologies, photo trips
to all the major places in Napoleon's life, really remarkable "day trips"
online to parts and places of Napoleon's life, interviews, a club to join.
This is serious stuff! A TOUR DE FORCE.
-
The Napoleon Guide
-
Easy-to-navigate online magazine that offers broad coverage of the fascinating
era of Napoleon Bonaparte. His
career:
"One of the most brilliant individuals in history, Napoleon Bonaparte
was a masterful soldier, grand tactician, sublime statesman and exceedingly
capable administrator." (Excellent article on his life). Followed
by his Opponents, his Marshals, and of course, his
loves.(biographies).
-
-
THE MAN, HIS MIND, AND THE
TIMES
-
Capsule History
of Napoleonic Literature
-
"More books have been written about Napoleon than any other figure in
history. Between 1815 and 1900, more than 100,000 titles were produced."
Why have so many books been written? First and foremost was Napoleon's impact
on history. During the period 1800-1815, almost every significant event
in European history was the result of an action initiated by Napoleon. The
Napoleonic Wars were the greatest event in the 19th Century and, as such,
people literally devoured everything that was written concerning Napoleon
and the Napoleonic Wars."
-
Discriminating
General's Napoleonic Collection
-
Interesting place to listen to music, buy uniforms of the time, read articles
and letters.
-
Imperial
Guard of Napoleon
-
Written in 1851, this electronic book of 14 chapters contains everything
from soup to nuts on Napoleon.
-
Maxims of
Napoleon
-
"Friendship is but a name....Great ambition is the passion of a great
character...Love does more harm than good...When the authority of the master
is disowned, all is lost...In government, as in war, mind is necessary to
success." Many others.
-
Napolean
-
Bonaparte, the Consulate, the Napoleonic Code, the Empire (1804-1814),
the Congress of Vienna, the Hundred Days.
-
Napoleonic
Era
-
Coalitions, personalities,
Chronology of the
Napoleonic Wars, Major Events 1769-1820.
-
Napoleon Bonaparte:
Dispatches and Orders, 1796-1815
-
"On-line selections of Napoleon's Headquarters Correspondence are drawn
from the original 32 volumes of dispatches and orders first published in
1853."
-
Napoleon and
Foreign Affairs - Brief But Detailed Outline
-
Napoleon
Mock Trial
-
"The purpose of this trial is to judge the actions of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Was he a great leader and patriot, or was he a power-hungry dictator? The
year is 1815 and his last 100 days as a general have ended on the fields
of Waterloo. What are we to do with this man? Our task is to examine his
life and produce a verdict on the charge of "crimes against humanity", a
charge later used against the Nazis after World War Two. Be careful, because
the Congress of Vienna - which is sponsoring this trial - may not be completely
innocent!"
-
Napoleonic
Literature
-
Classic Napoleonic literature and art in electronic format.
-
Napoleon Series
-
Electronic magazine dedicated to Napoleon and his times. Articles,
discussion, reviews, excellent FAQs.
-
Napoleon Series Links
-
"Swell" links that enhance this Napoleon chapter. Military, battles,
wargaming, journals, invasions, really everything.
-
-
THE WARS
-
Napoleonic Artillery -
Firepower Comes of Age
-
Special article on the impact on war of the Napoleonic Wars from 1792-1815.
"During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars which swept Europe between
1792 and 1815, the small professional armies of the Eighteenth Century quickly
gave way to large national armies composed of draftees. This same period
saw artillery transformed from a specialized profession overseen by "mechanics,"
into a major service branch capable of dominating battlefields. An example
of this is the French Army of Italy, which in 1796 had 60 artillery pieces
to its credit. Sixteen years later, at the Battle of Borodino, the artillery
for both sides totaled nearly 1,200 guns which fired an average of 15,000
rounds per hour during the course of the day's fighting. And that was on
a mere two mile front! . . But . . .how did it function during the confusion
of combat? What factors led to the rise in status of artillery from a belittled
specialist branch to that of a new god of war?"
-
Napoleonic Wars - The
Armies
-
Austria, Britain, France, Prussia, Russia. Infantry, cavalry,
artillery, manpower. The leading
soldiers of all
armies.
-
Correspondence of Napoleon
I
-
"These on-line selections of Napoleon's Headquarters Correspondence re
drawn from the original 32 volumes of dispatches and orders first published
in 1853. Because of the sheer size of the Correspondence, we can only provide
highlights of important battles or campaigns. "
Napoleon takes command of the Army of Italy: March 27th through 31st,
1797.
The Battle of Austerlitz: December 1st through 3rd, 1805 and December 3rd,
1805.
-
Prelude and first day of Aspern-Essling: May 19 - 24, 1809.
The battles of Ligny, Quatre Bras and Waterloo (Mont-Saint-Jean): June
15-21, 1815.
-
The Campaigns of the
War
-
First Coalition against Napoleon, The Egyptian Campaign (1798-1801), Second
Coalition, Third Coalition ("In April 1805, the time looked perfect for the
members of the Third Coalition - Britain, Austria, Russia, Sweden and some
German states - to strike back at France.") Fourth Coalition ("As a watcher
from the sidelines, Prussia became increasingly more concerned at French
influence spreading over the minor German states and, in October 1806, finally
joined Britain and Russia against Napoleon Bonaparte.") The Fifth Coalition
- 1809.
The Peninsular War - 1807-1814 (" It was probably the worst mistake Napoleon
Bonaparte made during his lengthy reign over France - the attempted subjugation
of Portugal in a bid to tighten his trade blockade of Britain.")
Into Russia
- 1812. Sixth Coalition and liberation of Germany, 1813.
-
France Invaded: "Having managed to survive through both the disastrous
1812 and 1813 campaigns in Russia and Germany, Napoleon Bonaparte made the
politically fatal error of not agreeing to peace terms set by the Allied
Powers. The ever-strengthening Allies wanted to restrict France to borders
based on the Rhine and the Alps but Bonaparte felt, as he had done before,
that he would be able to best the combined forces ranged against him." The
100 Days - 1815: The last campaign of the Napoleonic Wars and finally
ended Napoleon Bonaparte's dreams of remaining emperor of France. It began
with Bonaparte's now legendary escape from his exile on the island of Elba
to a France that had quickly become disenchanted with the returned Bourbon
king Louis XVIII."
-
The Battles of the
Napoleonic Wars: A to Z!
-
Stunning detail and summary, battle by battle. And all the
intriguing weapons of war
here.
-
Napoleonic Wars
Series
-
Combines all material in "The War Times Journal" which relates to the
Napoleonic Wars. Rare archives of personal memoirs and dispatches, articles,
summaries, games, books to read
-
Egyptian Campaign - 1798 -
1801
Egypt
Conquest (1798 - 1802)
-
Explains why Napoleon decided to capture Cairo. Then move on
to HERE.
-
Battle of Austerlitz -
1805
The
Battle of Austerlitz - Napoleon Leaps to Victory
-
"It was before dawn on December 2, 1805--the first anniversary of Napoleon's
coronation as supreme ruler. The armies of three emperors--Napoleon I of
France, Francis I of Austria and Tsar Alexander I of Russia--would meet in
the day that followed.. ."
-
Austerlitz
- 1805
-
"On the 2nd of December 1805 on the hillocks and valleys east of Brno
took place one of the most significant events in European history of the
19th century and at the same time one of the most famous battles
of the Napoleon wars - the Battle of Austerlitz. Up until the battles of
Borodino and then of Leipzig the Austerlitz massacre was by sheer soldier
power and number dead and wounded the bloodiest and biggest conflict of the
Napoleon wars."
-
Service of the
Imperial Guard at Austerlitz and Jena
-
Interesting chapter on the Napoleonic wars.
-
Peninsular War -
1807-1814
-
Goya's Disasters of
War
-
Some of the most graphic images to come out of the brutal guerrilla war
in the Peninsular War were penned by Goya. Click on each to enlarge.
-
Invasion of Russia -
1812
Napoleon's
Invasion of Russia
-
"In June of 1812, Napoleon began his fatal Russian campaign, a landmark
in the history of the destructive potential of warfare. Virtually all of
continental Europe was under his control, and the invasion of Russia was
an attempt to force Tsar Alexander I to submit once again to the terms of
a treaty that Napoleon had imposed upon him four years earlier. Having gathered
nearly half a million soldiers, from France as well as all of the vassal
states of Europe, Napoleon entered Russia at the head of the largest army
ever seen. The Russians, under Marshal Kutuzov, could not realistically hope
to defeat him in a direct confrontation. Instead, they begin a defensive
campaign of strategic retreat, devastating the land as they fell back and
harassing the flanks of the French. As the summer wore on, Napoleon's massive
supply lines were stretched ever thinner, and his force began to decline.
By September, without having engaged in a single pitched battle, the French
Army had been reduced by more than two thirds from fatigue, hunger, desertion,
and raids by Russian forces."
-
1812:
Napoleon's March to Russia
-
Great site. Walk through the March step by step. Look at Napoleon's most
private photos and candid shots of the March. Includes excellent links.
-
Museum-Panorama: "The
Borodino Battle"
-
"The Patriotic war of 1812, or '"Russian Campaign of Napoleon"' occupies
one of the most significant places in the century-old, dramatic history of
Russia. That war became the beginning of the end of the Napoleon Empire;
Napoleon's Grand Army was completely destroyed in Russia. Currently,
Museum-Panorama "The Borodino Battle" is the only Moscow Museum with exposition
telling about the military campaign of 1812."
-
Borodino Battle
-
Early account. And when it was over? "Various sources
put the Russian losses at Borodino at between 38,500 and 44,000, but the
official records shown 43,924 dead, wounded and missing. Among those losses
were 23 generals. . .The 2nd Army of the West had been reduced from 20,000
to 14,000 men. Many battalions had fewer than 200 men remaining. The six
grenadier battalions that had defended the Bagration Fleches were
reduced to a total of about 300 men. The Empress Cuirassier Regiment had
entered the battle with 400 men and ended it with only 95. French losses
were around 30,000, including 14 division and 22 brigade commanders, along
with 32 staff officers, 86 aides-de-camp and 37 regimental colonels. Both
sides were left totally exhausted, physically and mentally. That was accentuated
by the indecisive nature of the battle. . . In salvaging what was left on
the battlefield the French collected 20,000 artillery balls with which to
restock their supplies.
-
The
Virtual Battle of Borodino
-
Website allows you to be a part of the Battle of Borodino. You can choose
to follow either Napoleon or Kutuzov through the battle to see what happened.
-
Kutuzov
Versus Napoleon at Borodino
-
"Borodino is a village 124 km west of Moscow. On August 26, 1812 it was
the scene of the most decisive battle of the 1812 War with Napoleon. It was
here that the Russian commander-in-chief, Field Marshal Prince Michael Kutuzov,
following the surrender of Smolensk to the French forces took a decision
to stage a decisive battle against the Napoleonic army. The outcome of the
battle was favorable for the Russian army. Russian troops displayed outstanding
gallantry. Russia's army corps commanding generals included such outstanding
military commanders as Prince Bagration, Marshal Barclay de Tolly, M.
Miloradovich, B. Dokhtarov, M. Platov and others. The Russian army had 104,000
men and 627 guns. The French had 124,000 men and 587 guns. The casualties
in the Napoleon's army ran as high as over 50,000 dead and wounded (28,000
killed), the Russian casualty figures stood at 44,000. The Battle of Borodino
heralded a crisis in Napoleon's strategy of the General Battle. Napoleon
failed in this attempt to totally destroy the Russian army, make Russia
surrender, and dictate her peace terms. His forces suffered grave losses
while the Russian spirit was enhanced. The battle signalled the beginning
of the catastrophe that engulfed the Grand Army. "Text, Photos, extensive
sites.
-
Battle of Waterloo -
1815
On June 18, 1815, with 30,000 of his men off on a wild goose chase after
the Prussians, Napoleon faced Wellington at Waterloo. The battle raged for
hours, and Napoleon seemed on the verge of victory. "I've got them," he shouted.
"They're ours." Then the Prussians showed up to relieve Wellington, while
the 30,000 French reinforcements never arrived. By nightfall Napoleon had
gone down to defeat. A broken man, he raced back to Paris in tears. His return
to power, the Hundred Days, was over. The Battle of Waterloo is one of the
most studied battles in history, and there are numerous theories as to why
Napoleon Bonaparte lost. Clearly, the duke of Wellington was a remarkable
strategist who possessed much courage, good sense, and willpower. Also, he
had excellent field positions and more troops than Napoleon. But even he
called Waterloo "a damned nice thing," the British way of saying that it
was a close call.
-
Battle of Waterloo
- Orders of Battle
-
Chronology of the battle between the battalions and regiments of the
Anglo-Allied, French and Prussian soldiers.
-
Waterloo
for the Uninitiated - June 18th 1815 - A Quick Primer
-
"There are infinitely better accounts of Waterloo than the one I am going
to give - but this is the 'Weight-watchers' version - a quick run down to
put the battle in perspective for people that have no idea what it was all
about.There are four major points to remember - First it was of short duration,
Second it was fought over a very small area, Third it marked the end of
twenty-five years warfare, and proved the final overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte
and finally because it was the bloodiest exchange that had been witnessed
to date. One in four of the soldiers died on that small field, the carnage
was incredible. This was a battle of Napoleon's French forces against two
allied forces: 1 - the Anglo-Dutch led by Wellington and;
-
2 - the Prussians led by Blucher."
-
British Victory
at Trafalgar
-
"Trafalgar ended any chance France had of invading Britain and, from 1805
onwards, Bonaparte largely kept his military operations to terra firma."
-
If Napoleon
Had Won the Battle of Waterloo
-
1905 article by the great historian, G. Macaulay Trevelyan.
Fascinating, read it.
-
June 18,
1815 - The Battle of Waterloo
-
And the three protagonists: The Duke of Wellington, Napoleon and Marshal
Blücher). Summary and pictures of the site of Waterloo as it is
now.
-
Napoleon,
Wellington, the Battle of Waterloo
-
Bios of both and summary of the Battle.
-
Waterloo 1815
Le centre du Visiteur, The Visitors Center
-
Really "neat" site. Welcome to Waterloo On Net. "1 ) The History : will
help you to make sense of the details of the battle. 2 ) The Panorama : 110
metres in circumference illustrating some phases of the fighting. 3 ) The
Cinema : an unreleased short film taking viewers into the heart of the events
of 1815.
19TH CENTURY CONGRESSES
Concert of Europe
Term used in the 19th century to designate a loose agreement by the
major European powers to act together on European questions of common interest.
The concert emerged after the Congress of Vienna (1814–15) and included
the Quadruple Alliance powers of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia,
and, as of 1818, France as well. It aimed to preserve peace by concerted
diplomatic action reinforced by periodic conferences dealing with problems
of mutual concern.
-
Congress
of Vienna
-
Congress Participants, Issues, Territorial Adjustments, Consequences.
"Although the territorial changes brought about by the Congress
of Vienna did not endure long in entirety, they represented a practical if
not always equitable solution and an attempt at dealing with Europe as an
organic whole. The Quadruple Alliance and the Holy Alliance , designed to
uphold the decisions of Vienna and to settle disputes and problems by means
of conferences, were an important step toward European cooperation. The Concert
of Europe which functioned even though imperfectlythrough the 19th cent.,
may be credited to the Congress of Vienna. An auxiliary accomplishment of
the Congress was the adoption of standard rules of diplomacy. Serious defects,
however, included the disregard of the growing national aspirations and the
social changes that brought about the revolutions of 1848, and the failure
to include the Ottoman Empire in the settlement and to deal satisfactorily
with the Eastern Question."
-
Results of the Congress
of Vienna
-
"Although the Congress has received criticism for ignoring the growth
of liberty, equality, and fraternity in Europe, it has received praise for
finding a general settlement of a complex series of problems, especially
from scholars who favorably compare its work to that of the victorious allies
at Versailles after World War I. The representatives were not totally, blindly
reactionary: many of the changes of the previous twenty-five years were retained.
The forty years of general peace that followed, flawed though they may have
been, are testimony to the success of Metternich and his colleagues in gaining
stability. But, by ignoring the forces of change, the representatives at
Veinna ensured the ultimate failure of the system they created."
-
What Was the
Congress of Vienna?
-
"The Treaty of Paris,which is signed May 30, 1814 restores peace, reduces
France to its frontiers of 1792, and places Louis XVIII, brother of the
decapitated Louis XVI on the French throne. This treaty was an expression
of the legitimacy-principle and of the necessity felt by the Allies to return
to the Ancient Regime. Six secret articles stipulated that a congress would
be held in Vienna to decide the fate of the recovered territories. However,
all the important decisions would be made by the four great powers: England,
Austria, Prussia and Russia. The other nations were not allowed to partake
in these secret dispositions."
-
Congress
of Vienna and Concert of Europe
-
And
HERE.
-
Talleyrand
and the Congress of Vienna
-
Congress
of Vienna Overview - Snapshot
-
Delegates to the
Congress
-
Examines each country. "At the Congress of Vienna, the monarchs
and princes of Europe redrew their boundaries, to the advantage of Prussia
(in Saxony and the Ruhr), Austria (in Illyria and Venetia), and Russia
(in Poland and Finland). British conquest of Dutch and French colonies (S.
Africa, Ceylon, Mauritius) was recognized, and France, under the restored
Bourbons, retained its expanded 1792 borders." Some say the settlement brought
50 years of international peace to Europe but that view ignores much.
-
AUSTRIA, PRINCE KLEMONS VON METTERNICH AND
THE CONGRESS SYSTEM
The Congress System dominated European international relations in the
early 19th Century. Both Austria and Prince von Metternich were major players.
Klemens von Metternich, the "Coachman of Europe" who said of himself, "I
was born too late or too soon."
-
-
Concert
of Europe Overview
-
Concert of Europe "formulated in 1815 as a mechanism to enforce the decisions
of the Congress of Vienna. Composed of the Quadruple Alliance: Prussia, Russia,
Austria, and Great Britain, its main priorities were to establish a balance
of power." Uprisings, the Eastern Question, nationalism, Crimean War.
-
Prince Klemens Lothar
Wenzel Von Metternich
-
Biography of this critical figure. "In Europe Napoleon, Metternich,
and Bismarck set their stamp upon the nineteenth century. All three of them
lived to see their own fall. Metternich remained the longest in the leading
position of "coachman of Europe". Nothing better characterizes the great
statesman than what he repeatedly said, proud and aristocratic as always,
to Baron A. von Hübner a few weeks before his death: 'I was a rock of
order.'" And another good summary
here.
-
Metternich
and the New Social Order: 1815-1848
-
Important article and analysis of this period. "Between 1815 and
1848 central Europe was dominated by a single personality, Prince Klemens
von Metternich, the actual political leader of Austria. The 'coachman of
Europe,' as he was called by those who respected his far-flung power, dominated
the first half of the century, like Prince Otto von Bismarck dominated the
second half."
-
Metternich:
Success or Failure?
-
Summary: "Metternich was skilled in the arts of contemporary diplomacy
and image-making. For a while, he preserved and strengthened the Habsburg
Empire but only in appearance. Metternich was unable to prevent the growth
of the forces that weakened and ultimately destroyed the Habsburg Empire."
-
The
Diplomacy of Metternich and The Congress of Vienna
-
"Metternich's ideal was a monarchy that shared power with the traditional
privileged classes of society. In efforts to preserve the sort of Europe
he valued from future revolutionary irruptions Metternich attempted to make
the postwar Quadruple Alliance (Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria)
into an instrument for preventing revolution in Europe. He encouraged a Congess
System where representatives of the powers were to meet periodically with
the view considering if it was necessary to supress revolutionary
movements.."
-
Congress of Vienna
Results
-
"In the half century after Waterloo, many changes took place in the political
boundaries and population distribution of Europe. The French and Napoleonic
revolutions created new conditions that challenged the leaders of Europe
gathered at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. Delegates had to construct
a peace settlement that digested the political and social transformations
that had taken place in the previous quarter century and anticipate the new
demands created by those changes. They redrew the state borders and redefined
the spheres of influence. The geopolitical structure they created and the
surface order that resulted endured until 1848. A wave of revolutions spread
across the continent in that year and put an end to the structure created
at Vienna. The revolutionaries, because of their conflicting goals, failed
to turn their ideals into state policy. After 1848, continental politics
would be built on the basis of realpolitik, that is, realism in politics."
-
REVOLUTIONS OF 1848
The wave of political and economic revolts that spread across Europe.
-
The
Revolution of 1848
-
"The Revolution of 1848 was an international event and, apart from the
world wars, the only such event in the West. But it did not affect all of
Europe. At least two states - England and Russia, at opposite ends of the
continent - remained unscathed. What made these two countries different
from the others? The Revolution of 1848 shook those countries in which
a bourgeois elite led the opposition against more or less reactionary
governments. But Russia had no bourgeoisie and, after the electoral reform
of 1832, the English bourgeoisie was no longer in opposition."
-
Encyclopedia
of the Revolutions of 1848
-
First rate site with many articles covering the range of issues and countries.
Vital to this vital subject.
-
Revolutions
of 1848 Overview
-
The
Revolutions of 1848 Essay - Brief
-
Revolutions
of 1848 Analysis
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
-
Internet
Modern History Sourcebook
-
Here are THE sources.
The Industrial
Revolution: An Overview
-
Basic Victorian Web overview includes chronology.
-
The Industrial
Revolution: Its affects and consequences
-
"In the last part of the 18th century, a new revolution gripped the world
that we were not ready for. This revolution was not a political one, but
it would lead to many implications later in its existance. Neither was this
a social or cultural revolution. This revolution was an economic one. The
Industrial Revolution, as it know called by historians, changed the ways
by how the world produced its goods. It also changed our societies from a
mainly agricultural society to one that in which industry and manufacturing
was in control." Quick summary.
-
The Industrial
Revolution
-
" The Industrial Revolution was a dramatic change in the nature of production
in which machines replaced tools, steam and other energy sources replaced
human or animal power, and skilled workers were replaced with mostly unskilled
workers."
-
History: Industrial
Revolution
-
List of many sites, some specious, a few good.
-
Understanding the Industrial
Revolution
-
"WELCOME to Lancashire, the place where the Industrial Revolution began
two and a half centuries ago . . ." Proceed!
-
The Origins
of the Industrial Revolution in England
-
"The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries was
revolutionary because it changed -- revolutionized -- the productive capacity
of England, Europe and United States. But the revolution was something more
than just new machines, smoke-belching factories, increased productivity
and an increased standard of living. It was a revolution which transformed
English, European, and American society down to its very roots."
CRIMEAN WAR
The famous suicidal CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE, Florence Nightingale,
Yalta, the Black Sea, Sevastopol - hiding the terrible carnage of this nasty
war. Another balance of power issue in the 1853-1856 war. England and France
feared Russian control of the critical Straits of Bosporus and the possibility
of Russian defeat of the despised Ottoman Empire. Turkey declared war against
Russia. Ended with the Treaty of Paris with the balance of power restored.
-
Crimean
War
-
"England entered this war between Russia and Turkey on the side of the
Turks because Russia was seeking to control the Dardanelles and thus threaten
England's Mediterranean sea routes. The country might not have gone to war
had it not been so popular, patriotism being inflamed by such works as Charles
Kingsley's Westward Ho! The misunderstood order that lead to the suicidal
Charge of the Light Brigade (by a brigade of light cavalry over open terrain
against well-defended heavy artillery) was unfortunately symptomatic of the
ineptness of the British command. The army's problems were made public by
the first real war correspondent, William Russell of the London Times. (Other
outrages included the inability of the supply corps to get food to starving
soldiers six miles away.) The exposure lead to reform. As the enemy killed
fewer British soldiers than starvation and cholera, so the gallantry
of the Light Brigade was less consequential than the actions of Florence
Nightingale, who reformed the way the hospitals were being run and
invented the nursing profession."
-
Florence
Nightingale Site
-
Range of information. I also collected an interesting article
she wrote from
here.
Then to a brief
biography.
-
Florence
Nightingale's Crimean War Activity
-
Florence Nightingale's accomplishments, including photo.
-
Florence Nightingale
Tribute
-
"I stand at the altar of the murdered men, and, while I live, I fight
their cause." Links, portrait, voice recording, selected correspondence,
quotes.
-
Florence Nightingal
Museum
-
Fine museum, resources, research links. "Florence Nightingale was
a legend in her lifetime but the Crimean War years which made her famous
were just two out of a life of ninety years. . . .In recognition of her hard
work Queen Victoria awarded Miss Nightingale the Royal Red Cross in 1883.
In her old age she received many honours, including the Order of Merit (1907),
becoming the first woman to receive it. Florence Nightingale died at home
at the age of 90 on 13 August 1910 and, according to her wishes, she was
buried at St Margaret's, East Wellow, near her parent's home, Embley Park
in Hampshire. Florence Nightingale's farsighted reforms have influenced the
nature of modern health care and her writings continue to be a resource for
nurses, health managers and planners."
-
Crimean War Research Society
-
Join the Society and receive a volume of information. "Scaling
the Heights of the Alma; The Charge of the Light Brigade; the Soldier's Battle;
Florence Nightingale; the Fall of Sebastopol; the incompetence of those in
command; the endurance of the ordinary soldier; all of these and more are
examined."
-
The Military
Operations
-
"A joint invasion force, over 60,000 strong, comprising British, French
and Turkish elements landed in Calamita Bay, south of Eupatoria, on the 14th
September 1854; on the 19th the three armies marched south along the coast
in the direction of Sebastopol, 30 miles away. In their path were a number
of small streams, flowing from the interior of the Crimea westwards to the
coast. . . . " Excellent summary.
-
Crimean
War (1854-56)
-
A professor's terse summary.
-
Sevastopol History : Crimea
War
-
" Crimean war flared up in 1854 as result of long saved economic and political
contradictions between England, France, Turkey and Russia. Each of these
countries aspired to strengthen the influence on Near East to win the markets
of selling to subordinate to itself new territories."
-
The
Crimean War, 1853-56
-
"In the years 1854 to 1856, Britain fought its only European war between
the ending of the Napoleonic conflict in 1815 and the opening of the Great
War in 1914. Although eventually victorious,the British and their French
allies pursued the war with little skill and it became a byword for poor
generalship and logistical incompetence." ""I believe that if this
barbarous nation(Russia) the enemy of all progress...... should once succeed
in establishing itself in the heart of Europe, it would be the greatest calamity
which could befall the human race" Lord Lyndhurst in a speech to the House
of Lords.
-
GENERAL ISSUES AND
DEVELOPMENTS
-
International
Order and Domestic Strife
-
And the European State System. "When Napoleon boarded ship
as a prisoner of the English, he did not carry in his baggage the problems
he had produced on the European continent. The year 1815 is, therefore, not
so much a turning point in modern history as it is a dramatic moment in a
period of political turmoil. And so the hero departed a broken man, but the
revolutionary age went on. Nevertheless, the imperial expansion and military
conquest that were the brutal characteristics of the Napoleonic Era were
not continued."
-
Age of
Power
-
Marx, the Industrial Revolution, capitalism, entrepreneurs.
-
Expansion
& Explosion: 1871-1918
-
"In 1889 the Eiffel Tower rose nearly one thousand feet into the Parisian
sky; in 1912 the ocean liner Titanic, nearly nine hundred feet in length,
set out on its maiden voyage to America. Both structures were the wonders
of their age, proof of European technological success and expressions of
the unusual power that the late nineteenth-century European world had amassed.
. . .The long years of relative peace had encouraged many people to assume
that in this self-styled "century of progress," a major war was not possible.
It also led a few people to a different conclusion: that peace was enervating,
productive only of complacency. When the Prussian general Helmuth von Moltke
stated in 1880 that 'everlasting peace is a dream, and not even a beautiful
one,'he expressed more than his own opinion."
IMPERIALISM FROM 1870 TO WWI
-
New
Imperialism
-
As Cecil Rhodes proclaimed: "I would annex the planets if I could."
Detailed outline of imperialism in 19th century Europe with its forceful
extension of sovereignty over other peoples.
-
Britannia Essay
on the Expansion of Europe: Causes, Results
-
"One of the most dramatic, morally debatable, and significant activities
of the nineteenth-century European social order was its outward movement
into a dominant position on several continents and among many islands cast
about the earth. Of course, empire was hardly a new institution. It has been
a rather constant characteristic of the Western world since well before the
days when Roman legions sallied forth to make alien peoples bow beneath standards
surmounted by bronze eagles. And even the first years of the nineteenth century
were witnesses to Napoleon's effort at surpassing imperial Rome. But never
before the end of the century were there so many expressions of imperialism,
with rival colonial systems competing in so many areas of the world. Great
Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal, even
Russia (not to mention the United States and Japan outside of Europe) intruded
forcefully into Africa, or Asia, the Middle East, or the South Pacific--and
finally sought the North and South Poles in the early years of this century.
As an American senator of the time remarked, the Western world had an acute
case of land hunger."
-
Leopold
II (1835-1909): The King of Belgium 1865-1909
-
"Sir Henry Stanley's travels through Eastern Africa to find Dr.
David Livingstone made him famous throughout Europe. In 1876 Leopold
II employed Stanley to acquire as much land in the Congo Basin as
he possibly could. The area that Stanley was able to get consisted
of nearly 905,000 square miles. This is almost three and a half times
larger than present day Texas. This land was not intended to become
a Belgian colony, but a private state, owned exclusively by
Leopold."
-
The Boer War
-
"The Boer War of 1899 was a dirty little conflict which involved
all the Boer Republics and the British empire. The Treaty of
Vereeniging made the Transvaal and the Orange Free State into British
colonies. The Boers have never forgotten the British cruelty."
-
The
Boer War: South Africa, 1899-1902
-
"The British criss-cross the countryside with blockhouses to flush the
Boers into the open; they burn farms and confiscate foodstuffs to prevent
them falling into Boer hands; they pack off Boer women and children to
concentration camps as 'collaborators'; they literally starve the commandos
into submission."
-
Contains several articles which try to decide why the Great Powers got
into Africa and how successful they were.
-
Internet
African History Sourcebook
-
Scroll about 2/3 way down to Imperialism and there is a lot of information
on the age of imperialism; in particular, positive and negative effects of
imperialism that will help in researching an issue controversy.
-
Scramble
for Africa1
-
"A hundred years later, however, a second wave of colonisation took place.
Within twenty years, from 1880 to 1900, every corner of the Earth, from the
highest mountains in the Himalayas to the most remote Pacific island and
Antarctica, came to be claimed by one or other European power. Africa saw
the most dramatic colonisation. It was divided up as if it had been a cake
split between greedy European leaders. This was called the "Scramble for
Africa."
-
Scramble
for Africa2
-
"The impact of the conference and the diplomatic maneuvering that followed
was dramatic on the African continent. In 1880 approximately 90% of Africa
was ruled by Africans. By 1900 nearly all of Africa had been parceled out
to the Europeans--only Ethiopia and Liberia escaped the scramble for Africa.
The greatest winner was Leopold, whose public statements about his humanitarian
concerns for the Congo disguised his real intentions."
-
The
Scramble for Africa, 1870-1912
-
"Knowledgeable onlookers at the time were astounded at the magnitude of
the changes, puzzled at their momentum, appalled by the atrocious brutality
generated on all sides by penetration and conguest, and intoxicated by prospects
of plenty, progress or personal advancement."
-
The
Mad Scramble for Africa
-
The
BBC Story of Africa and Europe, 1800-1914
-
"Commercial greed, territorial ambition, and political rivalry all fuelled
the European race to take over Africa. This culminated in Africa's partition
at the Berlin Conference 1884-5. The whole process became known as "The Scramble
for Africa"." And then the
African
Scramble. Fine information site.
-
The Opium War, 1839-1842
-
-
-
THE "OTHER" COUNTRIES:
Prussia, Italy
-
The Rise of Germany (Prussia)
The
Prussian Tradition
-
Rise
of Prussia - Chronology
-
Rise
and Unification
-
Then to
Bismarck.
-
Italy
-
The
Risorgimento : How Italy became a "nation."
-
The
Unification of Italy
-
Events and Leaders.
-
National
Unification: Prussia and Italy
-
-
THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR OF
1866
War fought in 1866 between Prussia and its ally Italy against Austria
and its allies Wurttemberg, Saxony, Hanover, and other minor German states.
The Prussians, under Otto von Bismark, decisively defeated the Austrians
and further consolidated their position in North Germany.
-
The
Austro-Prussian War
-
Austria's War with Prussia and Italy.
-
Austro-Prussian
War
-
"Or Seven Weeks War, June 15-Aug. 23, 1866, between Prussia, allied with
Italy, and Austria, seconded by Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, Hanover,
Baden, and several smaller German states. It was deliberately provoked by
Bismarck, over the objections of his king, in order to expel Austria from
the German Confederation as a step toward the unification of Germany under
Prussian dominance." Details. " Thus the war paved the way for the
establishment (1871) of the German Empire and the reorientation of Austria
(reorganized in 1867 as the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy) toward the east. The
moderate peace terms facilitated the Austro-German alliance of 1879."
-
Austro-Prussian
War 2
-
"Seven Weeks War, June 15–Aug. 23, 1866, between Prussia, allied
with Italy, and Austria, seconded by Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, Hanover,
Baden, and several smaller German states."
OTTO VON BISMARCK
-
Bismarck
and the Polish Question
-
His important "Speech to the Lower House of the Prussian Parliament, January
28, 1886."
-
Bismarck,
Otto von: 1815-1898
-
His life, times, impact.
-
The
Bismarckian Empire
-
Detailed analysis.
-
Fall
of Bismarck: Documents Original
-
"A struggle for power between Otto von Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm II
broke out immediately upon the death of Kaiser Frederick III (1888). The
"dropping of the pilot" and the setting of a "new course" in 1890 signified
the end of an era, a watershed in modern German history. Many contemporaries
looked back upon Bismarck's dismissal as a tragic mistake, believing that
he would have avoided the foreign policy blunders that plunged the German
Empire into the disaster of World War I."
-
Otto von Bismarck:
A Significant Leader
-
"Bismarck, Otto von remains one of the most significant political figures
of modern Germany. This stature derives from his contribution to the creation
and shaping of the modern German state as Prussian minister president and
imperial chancellor from 1862 to 1890." Good details
-
Otto
von Bismarck's Memoirs
-
Excellent analysis of Bismarck's actions and legacies. "Bismarck's legacy
to the next generation, however, was a mixed one. In foreign affairs his
skill had led to 20 years of peace in Europe, which had gained him a deserved
reputation for moderation and a sense of limits. Bismarck's greatest achievement,
the German Empire, only survived him by 20 years. Although he had united
Germany in one sense, he had failed to create an internally unified people.
In domestic affairs--as in foreign policy--he sought to freeze the status
quo after 1871. His empire was designed to be conservative. Thus he opposed
the Catholic Centre in the 1870s and the socialists in the 1880s because
both constituted unforeseen threats to his authoritarian creation. He also
introduced a vicious rhetoric into German politics that forestalled a sense
of common destiny. While German industry developed rapidly during his decades
in power, he would allow no evolution in the political system toward greater
participation. In this sense, Bismarck was a last representative of the world
of the ancien régime and cabinet diplomacy." Summary of his important
memoirs. And this summary analysis
HERE.
-
THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR OF
1870
"The closing weeks of July 1870 witnessed the armies of France and
the German states mobilizing for a war declared by the French in an attempt
to maintain hegemony in Europe. Instead, by the end of January 1871 the war
had toppled the empire, had brought an end to an outdated Napoleonic military
tradition of "we will always manage somehow," and had established the newly
united German empire as the dominant European military power. In addition
to these major military and political developments, the war subjected soldiers
of both sides to unusually brutal hardships and prolonged suffering."
-
The
Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71
-
"The conflict between France and Prussia that signaled the rise of German
military power and imperialism. It was provoked by Otto von Bismarck (the
Prussian chancellor) as part of his plan to create a unified
-
German Empire." Causes, course of the War, results.
-
The
Franco-Prussian War
-
"The war embittered Franco-German relations for decades to come, contributing
to the European rivalties which would erupt in World War I. French agitation
for revanche - revenge for the loss of Alsace-Lorraine - gave its name to
the phenomenon of revanchism?, the desire to punish a past enemy and regain
former territories."
-
The Franco-Prussian
War - And Immediate Aftermath
-
"By destroying Austrian influence in the Italian peninsula and in North
Germany, and by creating an aggressive North German Confederation dominated
by Prussia, the nationalist wars of the 1860's succeeded in destabilizing
central Europe."
-
Old News - Besieged
Parisians Launch Balloons
-
"During the siege of Paris, over three hundred and sixty carrier pigeons
from Paris were airlifted by balloon to the provinces. Only fifty-nine of
those pigeons managed to reach their dovecotes in Paris, carrying messages
for the defenders of the city. The French balloon program ended late in January
of 1871, when Paris surrendered. By then the French had launched sixty-five
manned balloons from Paris."
THE DUAL MONARCHY AND EMPEROR FRANCIS
JOSEPH
The beginning of the end or a new wave of empire?
-
Austria-Hungary;
Austria-Hungary Empire
-
Good for extensive links to Austro-Hungarian history, including links
to the establishment of the dual monarchy.
-
Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy
-
Essays, including history, Poland, physical features, population, religion,
government. Then go
here.
-
Establishment
of the Dual Monarchy Essay
-
Dual
Monarchy Established
-
"The Compromise of 1867 established the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
(also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire). The two parts of the empire
were united by a common ruler, by a joint foreign policy, and, to some extent,
by shared finances. Otherwise, Austria and Hungary were virtually independent
states, each having its own parliament, government, administration, and judicial
system. Despite a series of crises, this dual system survived until 1918.
It made permanent the dominant position of the Hungarians in Hungary and
of the Germans in the Austrian parts of the monarchy. While Czechs, Poles,
and other nationalities had some influence in government, they were never
permitted to share political power. This inability to come to terms with
its nationalities contributed to the ultimate collapse of the Dual Monarchy.
"
-
Schoenbrunn Palace
Homepage
-
And
Pictures.
-
Franz Josef - Emperor of
Austria, King of Hungary
-
"Franz Josef was crowned Emperor of Austria in 1848 at age 18. By the
summer of 1914 he would be in the 66th year of his reign. He was also crowned
King of Hungary in 1867 in an attempt to calm the situation with the problematic
Magyars (Hungarians). This worked and the Dual Monarchy would last until
his death in 1916."
-
Emperor Franz
Joseph - Emperor of Austria - King of Hungary
-
THE VICTORIAN AGE and THE INTELLECTUAL AND SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENTS
-
Karl Marx
Confessions
of Karl Marx
-
Site that has a list of questions, part of a parlor game, in which two
of Karl Marx's daughters asked him personal questions.
-
Eleanor
Marx on Her Father
-
Neat site in which one of Karl Marx's daughters reflects her memories
about the man she knew. Learn that Marx's thought process in his personal
life was just as unconventional for the time period as were his views on
the political and social systems.
-
Biography of
Karl Marx
-
Extensive and interesting biography regarding the life of Karl Marx.
Victorian Era: 1837 - 1901
-
The Victorian Web
-
Victorian culture and history. Social context, economics, religion,
philosophy, literature, the visual arts, science, technology, politics, and
gender.
-
Ancestory
of Queen Victoria
-
Family tree and the works! "Among Queen Victoria's great achievements
was the implementation of institutional reform and the expansion of the empire.
Under Victoria's reign, the British Empire doubled in size, taking in India,
Australia, Canada and parts of Africa and the South Pacific."
-
Queen Victoria's Empire
- From PBS
-
Excellent and comprehensive
-
Victorian
Gender and Sexuality
The Victorian Web
Site
-
Literature, biography, timelines
-
The
Victorian Age - The BBC Site
-
Victorian
Web Sites
-
Every category of the Victorian Age. What a wonderful
collection.
WWI
THE WAR TO END ALL WARS
SPECIAL PLACES
-
PBS: The Great War
The 1996 spectacular TV 8-hour miniseries. Site summarizes, quotes, excerpts.
Every student, everyone interested in WWI, should use this site first. And
see the TV series if possible.
-
Great War and
the Shaping of the 20th Century (PBs)
-
PBS multimedia production site that encompasses TV, online and print media
to explore the history and effect of WWI. It reveals not only the military
and political history but its ongoing social, cultural and personal impact.
Site provides greater depth to the events, places, figures addressed in the
TV series.
Prologue: "The Great War was without precedent ... never had so
many nations taken up arms at a single time. Never had the battlefield been
so vast... never had the fighting been so gruesome..."
-
Great War and the 20th
Century - THEN AND NOW
-
"The after shocks of the earthquake we call the Great War are still being
felt today, in the 21st century In countless ways, World War I created the
fundamental elements of 20th century history. Genocide emerged as an act
of war. So did the use of poison gas on the battlefield. The international
system was totally transformed. On the political right fascism came out of
the war; on the left a communist movement emerged backed by the Soviet Union.
Reluctantly, but unavoidably, America became a world power. The British Empire
reached its high point and started to unravel. Britain never recovered from
the shock of war, and started her decline to the ranks of the second-class
powers. At the peace conference of 1919, the German, Turkish, and
Austro-Hungarian empires were broken up. New boundaries were drawn in Europe
and the Middle East, boundaries -- as in Iraq and Kuwait -- which were still
intact at the end of the century."
What Did We Learn?
"I think we learned a great deal from the Great War. The first point is that
as soon as international warfare is launched, nobody can predict the outcome.
The second thing is that international war breeds civil war, and civil war
is uglier than international war because there are no limits. We also learned
that the technology of warfare expands much more rapidly than the capacity
of political leaders to control it. And I think the final thing that the
First World War taught us is that the easy access of individuals to democratic
procedures is very fragile. Warfare suspends democracy. How high a price
is victory? That's a question we owe to the First World War. And the question
is still with us today."
-
Episode
1: Explosion
-
"Why did a Serbian fanatic's assassination of the Archduke in Sarajevo
engulf the world in war? How did the rise of labor and women's demands for
equal right contribute to the unsettling unease throughout Europe in 1914?
How could those in power take so great a gamble, yet have so little understanding
of the war machine they were setting into motion?
Kaiser Wilhelm I and the contributing factors to WWI. Technological explosion
and outbreak. Suffragettes. Tsar Nicholas. Germany's explosive growth.
-
Episode
2: Stalemate
-
"How did modern weaponry bring about a deadly stalemate? How was this
brief war transformed into a gigantic and unprecedented war of attrition?
Schlieffen Plan, German reaction to Belgian resistance, French Bravery and
German fire power, weaknesses of the Russian Army, Battle of Tannenberg,
Britain's volunteer army, British Expeditionary Force in retreat, life in
the trenches, Christmas truce. And click to next
PAGE.
-
Episode
3/4: Total War and Slaughter
-
By 1915, the conflict had spread across continents becoming a global war.
Gallipoli, women and the war effort, poison gas, hatred, Armenian genocide.
WWI "gave new meaning to death on the battlefield, a breadth of horror
- SLAUGHTER." Images, Verdun, General Haig, Battle of the Somme.
-
Episode 5/6:
Mutiny and Collapse
-
By 1917, "men, armies and nations were nearing a breaking point." "Why
did it take mutiny so ling to erupt?" End of heroism, soldiers as victims
and executioners, mutiny on the battlefield, unrest at home, seeds of the
Bolshevik Revolution, storming the Winter Palace.
-
At start of 1918, the odds for the Allies looked bad. All of Europe was
running out of men. Then a new player entered, shifting the balance. Kaiser,
Hindenburg, Ludendorff, Woodrow Wilson, Zimmermann Telegram, patriotic murder,
march offensive, germany in retreat, Wilson and Pershing and US
involvement.
-
Episode
7/8: Hatred and Hunger and War Without End
-
WWI had been the worst disaster in history. Millions killed, four empires
collapsed. Large parts of France, Belgium and Russia lay devastated. Old
order decimated, new one taking shape - producing an even bloodier struggle.
Revolution after the war, Versailles Treaty.
-
"Broken hopes, broken families, broken lives." The war "became a war without
end." Why did so many have to die. The road back, Kathe Kollwitz, spiritualism,
Adolf Hitler.
-
TRENCHES ON THE WEB: World War
I
-
Important single site on the Net on WWI. Iinformation on the people, places,
and events that comprised one of the worst calamities of modern history.
Entire kingdoms vanished in the clash. Map makers would be very busy. Good
library, armory, map room, photo archive, war atlas, biographies, media room,
posters.
-
The Great War,
1914-1918
-
Good detail dedicated to those who fought and died. Particularly
interesting is the data on casualties and on the belligerants.
THE CRISES/EVENTS THAT LIMITED OPTIONS
-
1839-1914 The Long Fuse
Chronology
-
Trenches on the Web - Timeline:
1870-1914 - The Austro-Italian Naval Race
-
Trenches on the Web - Timeline:
1905-1914 - The Dreadnought Race
-
Trenches on the Web -
Timeline: 1905-1914 - War Plans
-
World War
I, The First Moroccan Crisis (1905)
-
Text of
the Schlieffen Plan, 1905
-
Annexation
of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, Fall, 1908
-
Trenches on the Web - Timeline:
28-Oct-1908 - The Daily Telegraph Affair
-
Trenches on the Web -
Timeline: 1908-09 - The Bosnian Crisis
THE NASTY ALLIANCES/TREATIES THAT CLOSED
OPTIONS
-
Bismarck
and Alliances
-
Brief emphasis on how the European countries involved in these treaties
paved the way for WWI.
-
Timeline: 1879-1914 The
Deadly Alliances
-
World War
I, The Entente Cordiale Between England and France
-
Document. The very important declaration.
-
World War
I, The Dual Alliance Between Austria-Hungary and Germany
-
World War I,
The Three Emperors League
-
World War
I, The Triple Alliance
-
World War
I, The Franco-Russian Alliance Military Convention
-
World War
I, The Anglo-Russian Entente
THE MATCHES THAT LIT THE FUSES
-
Sarajevo,
June 28, 1914
-
While no one would say that the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand caused
WWI, it did start the wheels rolling. Many years ago, I stood with my feet
in the concrete images of Gavrio Princip's footprints in Sarajevo. I also
went to his cell in the concentration camp of Terezin, in Czechoslovakia
- and to the Imperial War Museum in Vienna which holds the Archduke's "bloody"
car. I tried to recreate the event. This site does not substitute but it
does give a good brief event history, biographies of the plotters, participants,
the Archduke and his wife, and the Constitution of the Black Hand Society.
-
Black
Hand Society
-
The Secret Serbian Terrorist Society, the group that assassinated Archduke
Ferdinand.
-
June-July,
1914, German Dispatches and the Kaiser's Notes
-
Timeline: 28-Jun-1914 -
Assassination in Sarajevo
-
Document:
Assassination
of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
-
Document:
Tsar
Nicholas' Declaration Against the Bulgarians
-
Timeline Summary: Summer
1914
-
Timeline: Jul-1914: The
July Crisis
-
DOCUMENTS
-
Prince
Lichownowsky's Reply to Sir Edward Grey, July 1914
-
Franz Joseph
to the Kaiser, July 2, 1914 - Warning of Gravity
-
Austro-Hungarian
July 23, 1914 Ultimatum to Serbia
-
Serbian
Response to the Austro-Hungarian Ultimatum, July 25, 1914
-
Austro-Hungarian
Declaration of War on Serbia, July 28, 1914
-
Entire
Set of Willy-Nicky Telegrams, July 29-Aug. 1, 1914
-
World War
I, Tsar Nicholas' Declaration Against the Bulgarians
-
German
Declaration of War Against Russia, Aug. 1, 1914
-
German-Turkey
Treaty of Alliance, Aug. 2, 1914
-
Belgian
Refusal of Free Passage, Aug. 4, 1914
-
Timeline: Aug/Sep-1914 -
War Erupts in the West
-
The Zimmerman
Note, Jan. 19, 1917
CHRONOLOGY, HISTORICAL SUMMARIES, MAPS
-
Map:
WWI
-
Color-coded map with the new nations depicted after World War I. Also
includes pages on why the war happened and how it started.
-
Chronology:
From the Poets Page
-
Good, brief.
-
-
Trenches on the Web - War
Atlas: Index
-
First World War.com -
The War to End All Wars
-
Forging the First World War, Great War Timeline Summary, 1914-19, Vintage
Video - French Refugees, 1914, Observation Balloons, Air Aces of the World
War I, Life in the Trenches, No Man's Land, Dug-outs, Battle of Tannenberg,
Mine Warfare at Messines, Western Front Today - The Pool of Peace.
THE "BENIGN" RULERS WHO FAILED
-
Archduke Franz
Ferdinand
-
Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald
von
-
Bismarck, Prince Otto
von
-
Bulow, Prince Bernhard
von
Czar Nicholas II
-
Nicholas II
1868-1918: Emperor of All Russia, 1894-1917
-
Brief look at Czar Nicholas II and overview of his political life.
-
The Tsar
-
Brief explanation of Czar Nicholas II.
-
Tsar Nicholas II:
Excellent Thumbnail Sketch
-
-
Lloyd George, David
-
King George V
-
King Edward VII
-
King Albert I
-
Kemal Pasha, General
Mustafa
-
Kaiser Wilhelm
II
-
Emperor Franz Josef
-
General Mustafa Kemal
Pasha
-
Grey, Sir Edward
THE "BLIND" COMMANDERS WHO IMPLEMENTED TOTAL
WAR
-
Foch, Marshal
Ferdinand
-
French, Field Marshal Sir
John
-
Haig, First Earl
Douglas
-
Hotzendorff, Field Marshal
Franz Conrad von
-
Joffre, Marshal Joseph
Jaques
-
Moltke, Field Marshal Helmuth,
Count
-
Trenches on the Web - Bio:
General Sir John Monash
-
Trenches on the Web - Bio:
General John J. Pershing
THE NEW WARFARE
-
The
Great War: Interviews - Wohl: Modern Warfare
-
The
Great War: Interviews - Winter: Total War
THE CHRISTMAS TRUCE
-
Christmas
Truce
-
"The last twitch of the 19th Century." Last public moment "in which it
was assumed that people were nice" 1914.
GALLIPOLI
-
Trenches on the Web - Special:
Gallipoli/The River Clyde Landing
-
The
Great War: Interviews - Winter: Gallipoli
-
The
Great War: Interviews - Tuncoku: Gallipoli
-
The
Great War: Interviews - Wilson: Gallipoli
-
Gallipoli,
1915: Several Good Sites For Those Who Want To Know More
BATTLEFIELDS AND CAMPAIGNS
-
The Eastern Front: WWI
Summary
-
Great European and World
War
-
Military site. Orders of battle for all sides, information on the
armies.
-
Major
Battles of WWI: Description of Major Battles
-
WWI: The Eastern Front
- Military, History, German, Russia, Revolution
-
The Western Front
Association: Major Site
-
World War One - Western
Front Summary & Maps
-
Trenches Special: The
Organization of the German Army, 1914-1918
-
Trenches Special: The
Second Battle of Ypres, Apr-1915
-
Timeline: 4-Jun-1916 -
The Brusilov Offensive
-
The Battle of Verdun
-
Trenches on the Web - Special:
Tragedy on the Somme
-
Hellfire Corner - The
Great War - Battlefield Guide - Charles Fair
-
The remarkable trips of Charles Fair through all the battlefield and trench
sites of WWI.
-
Battlefields
- Itinerary and Tour
ATROCITIES AND HATRED
-
Atrocities:
German
-
Bryce
Report: of the Committee on Alleged German Outrages
-
Appointed by His Britannic Majesty's Government and Presided Over by the
Right Hon. Viscount Bryce, formerly British ambassador at Washington. 44
page report. Print out and read before making judgements about harshness
of treaty.
-
The Great
War: Hatred and Hunger
Hatred
-
"The mobilization of hatred is a way of saying there is no other way than
to carry the war on to the bloody end."
POETRY OF THE WAR
-
Battlefields:
Poetry
-
Battlefields:
War is Suffering
-
In Flanders
Field
-
Story of the making of the famous WWI poem.
-
Lost Poets of the Great
War
-
The poets, chronology of the war, the human cost.
-
Introduction
to First World War Poetry
-
See also the Women's poetry on this site.
-
Crippled for life at seventeen,
His great eyes seem to question why:
-
With both legs smashed it might have been
Better in that grim trench to die
-
Than drag maimed years out helplessly.
A child – so wasted and so white,
He told a lie to get his way,
-
To march, a man with men, and fight
While other boys are still at play.
-
A gallant lie your heart will say.
-
Selected
Poetry of Isaac Rosenberg
-
The Poet of
War - I. Rosenberg
-
And his llife and selected poems are
HERE.
PROPAGANDA
-
The Anti-German Cartoons
of W.K. Haselden, 1914-1918
-
"Examines the anti-German cartoons of the Daily Mirror cartoonist, W.K.
Haselden during the Great War, 1914-1918. W.K. Haselden was employed as staff
cartoonist for the Daily Mirror. He created the 'Sad experiences of Big and
Little Willie' series, examined here, parodying Kaiser Wilhelm II and his
son the Crown Prince during the Great War, 1914-1918. Very thoughtful
and interesting.
-
The
Drift to War -
The Committee
on Public Information -
Demons,
Atrocities, Lies -
Postwar
Propaganda.
-
Propaganda
Postcards
-
Propaganda
Posters
-
And
HERE,
and then
HERE
MEDIA GALORE
-
All the audio, musical clips and full musical selections on the Great
War one could ever wish.
-
WWI
Another Look
-
Remarkably sensitive photographs.
-
World War 1 (WW1) Songs Recorded
From 1918 Victrola
-
Images
of World War I: The Western Front
-
Nothing paints an image so clearly as a picture. Included on this website,
are authentic pictures of WWI at the front of trench warfare. I found it
invaluable in ingraining the images of war on my mind. {M. Heyer-Boot]
-
Trenches on the Web Media
Room
-
Do you remember Tipperary, Over There, Pack Up Your Troubles, Waltzing
Matilda? The British, French, Germany, Soviet Union, Turkish national
anthems.
"ARMS AND AMMUNITION"
-
Trenches on the Web -
Armory
-
Comprehensive.
COUNTRIES OF WWI - AND THEIR HISTORIES
-
Albania and WWI
-
USE THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS SEARCH
MACHINE AND GO TO
ALBANIA.
-
Then read the following articles (you
cannot save the URLs for the articles - they disappear!)
-
"Rise of Albanian Nationalisn," and "The Balkan Wars and Creation
of Independent Albania."
"National Awakening and the Birth of Albania, 1876-1918."
-
"Just Before the War."
-
"WWI and its Effects on Albania," and "Albania's Reemergence after WWI."
-
Austria and WWI
-
Atlas:
Austria-Hungary
-
USE THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS SEARCH
MACHINE AND GO TO
AUSTRIA:"The Final Years of the Empire and WWI."
Then go on and click to the "Next Pages."
-
Bulgaria and WWI
-
USE THE LIBRARY OF CONGRES
WESTERN CIVILIZATION: ACT III
BASTILLE TO 2000
